Valproic acid

Identification

Summary

Valproic acid is an anticonvulsant used to control complex partial seizures and both simple and complex absence seizures.

Brand Names
Depakene, Depakote, Epival
Generic Name
Valproic acid
DrugBank Accession Number
DB00313
Background

Valproic acid, or valproate, is an fatty acid derivative and anticonvulsant originally synthesized in 1881 by Beverly S. Burton.26 It enjoyed use as a popular organic solvent in industry and pharmaceutical manufacturing for nearly a century. In 1963, a serendipitous discovery was made by George Carraz during his investigations into the anticonvulsant effects of khelline when he found that all of his samples, dissolved in valproic acid, exerted a similar degree of anticonvulsive activity. It first received approval on February 28, 1978 from the FDA under the trade name Depakene.29

Since then, it has been investigated for neuroprotective, anti-manic, and anti-migraine effects. It is currently a compound of interest in the field of oncology for its anti-proliferative effects and is the subject of many clinical trials in a variety of cancer types.

Type
Small Molecule
Groups
Approved, Investigational
Structure
Weight
Average: 144.2114
Monoisotopic: 144.115029756
Chemical Formula
C8H16O2
Synonyms
  • 2-n-propyl-n-valeric acid
  • 2-propyl-pentanoic acid
  • 2-Propylpentanoic Acid
  • 2-Propylvaleric Acid
  • 4-heptanecarboxylic acid
  • acide valproïque
  • ácido valproico
  • acidum valproicum
  • di-n-propylacetic acid
  • Di-n-propylessigsäure
  • Dipropylacetic acid
  • DPA
  • n-DPA
  • Valproate
  • Valproic acid
  • Valproinsäure
  • VPA
External IDs
  • 44089

Pharmacology

Indication

Indicated for:Label

1) Use as monotherapy or adjunctive therapy in the management of complex partial seizures and simple or complex absence seizures.

2) Adjunctive therapy in the management of multiple seizure types that include absence seizures.

3) Prophylaxis of migraine headaches.

4) Acute management of mania associated with bipolar disorder.

Off-label uses include:

1) Maintenance therapy for bipolar disorder.7

2) Treatment for acute bipolar depression.8,9,10

3) Emergency treatment of status epilepticus.11

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Associated Conditions
Indication TypeIndicationCombined Product DetailsApproval LevelAge GroupPatient CharacteristicsDose Form
Management ofAbsence seizures•••••••••••••••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••••• •••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••
Management ofBipolar disorder (bd)••• •••••••••••••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••
Management ofComplex partial seizures•••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••••• •••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••
Management ofDepressive episode••• •••••••••••••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••
Management ofManic episode•••••••••••••••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••• ••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••• ••••••• •••• ••••••• •••••••• •••••••
Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings
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Pharmacodynamics

Valproate has been shown to reduce the incidence of complex partial seizures and migraine headaches.Label,5 It also improves symptom control in bipolar mania.23 Although the exact mechanisms responsible are unknown, it is thought that valproate produces increased cortical inhibition to contribute to control of neural synchrony. It is also thought that valproate exerts a neuroprotective effect preventing damage and neural degeneration in epilepsy, migraines, and bipolar disorder.

Valproate is hepatotoxic and teratogenic. The reasons for this are unclear but have been attributed to the genomic effects of the drug.1

A small proof-of concept study found that valproate increases clearance of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) when combined with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) by reactivating the virus to allow clearance, however, a larger multicentre trial failed to show a significant effect on HIV reservoirs when added to HAART.2,6 The FDA labeling contains a warning regarding HIV reactivation during valproate use.Label.

Mechanism of action

The exact mechanisms by which valproate exerts it's effects on epilepsy, migraine headaches, and bipolar disorder are unknown however several pathways exist which may contribute to the drug's action.

Valproate is known to inhibit succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase.12 This inhibition results in an increase in succinic semialdehyde which acts as an inhibitor of GABA transaminase ultimately reducing GABA metabolism and increasing GABAergic neurotransmission. As GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, this increase results in increased inhibitory activity.1 A possible secondary contributor to cortical inhibition is a direct suppression of voltage gated sodium channel activity and indirect suppression through effects on GABA.

It has also been suggested that valproate impacts the extracellular signal-related kinase pathway (ERK).1 These effects appear to be dependent on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) and result in the phosphorylation of ERK1/2. This activation increases expression of several downstream targets including ELK-1 with subsequent increases in c-fos, growth cone-associated protein-43 which contributes to neural plasticity, B-cell lymphoma/leukaemia-2 which is an anti-apoptotic protein, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which is also involved in neural plasticity and growth. Increased neurogenesis and neurite growth due to valproate are attributed to the effects of this pathway. An additional downstream effect of increased BDNF expression appears to be an increase in GABAA receptors which contribute further to increased GABAergic activity.13

Valproate exerts a non-competitive indirect inhibitory effect on myo-inosital-1-phophate synthetase.14 This results in reduced de novo synthesis of inositol monophosphatase and subsequent inositol depletion. It is unknown how this contributed to valproate's effects on bipolar disorder but [lithium] is known to exert a similar inositol-depleting effect.15 Valproate exposure also appears to produce down-regulation of protein kinase C proteins (PKC)-α and -ε which are potentially related to bipolar disorder as PKC is unregulated in the frontal cortex of bipolar patients. This is further supported by a similar reduction in PKC with lithium.16 The inhibition of the PKC pathway may also be a contributor to migraine prophylaxis.17 Myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate, a PKC substrate, is also downregulated by valproate and may contribute to changes in synaptic remodeling through effects on the cytoskeleton.18

Valproate also appears to impact fatty acid metabolism.1 Less incorporation of fatty acid substrates in sterols and glycerolipids is thought to impact membrane fluidity and result in increased action potential threshold potentially contributing to valproate's antiepileptic action.19 Valproate has been found to be a non-competitive direct inhibitor of brain microsomal long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase.20 Inhibition of this enzyme decreases available arichidonyl-CoA, a substrate in the production of inflammatory prostaglandins. It is thought that this may be a mechanism behind valproate's efficacy in migraine prophylaxis as migraines are routinely treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs which also inhibit prostaglandin production.

Finally, valproate acts as a direct histone deactylase (HDAC) inhibitor.22 Hyperacetylation of lysine residues on histones promoted DNA relaxation and allows for increased gene transcription. The scope of valproate's genomic effects is wide with 461 genes being up or down-regulated.21 The relation of these genomic effects to therapeutic value is not fully characterized however H3 and H4 hyperacetylation correlates with improvement of symptoms in bipolar patients.23 Histone hyperacetylation at the BDNF gene, increasing BDNF expression, post-seizure is known to occur and is thought to be a neuroprotective mechanism which valproate may strengthen or prolong.24 H3 hyperacetylation is associated with a reduction in glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, a pro-apoptotic enzyme, contributing further to valproate's neuroprotective effects.25

TargetActionsOrganism
AHistone deacetylase 9
inhibitor
Humans
UShort/branched chain specific acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
inhibitor
Humans
U2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
inhibitor
Humans
USuccinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
inhibitor
Humans
USodium channel protein
inhibitor
Humans
UHistone deacetylase 2
inhibitor
Humans
UPeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alphaNot AvailableHumans
UPeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor deltaNot AvailableHumans
UPeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gammaNot AvailableHumans
UHistone deacetylase
inhibitor
Humans
UCyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1
regulator
Humans
UHepatocyte growth factor
inhibitor
Humans
UOrnithine decarboxylase
downregulator
Humans
UProgrammed cell death 1 ligand 1
downregulator
Humans
Absorption

The intravenous and oral forms of valproic acid are expected to produce the same AUC, Cmax, and Cmin at steady-state.Label The oral delayed-release tablet formulation has a Tmax of 4 hours. Differences in absorption rate are expected from other formulations but are not considered to be clinically important in the context of chronic therapy beyond impacting frequency of dosing. Differences in absorption may create earlier Tmax or higher Cmax values on initiation of therapy and may be affected differently by meals.30 The extended release tablet formulation had Tmax increase from 4 hours to 8 hours when taken with food. In comparison, the sprinkle capsule formulation had Tmax increase from 3.3 hours to 4.8 hours. Bioavailability is reported to be approximately 90% with all oral formulations with enteric-coated forms possibly reaching 100%.27

Volume of distribution

11 L/1.73m2.Label

Protein binding

Protein binding is linear at low concentrations with a free fraction of approximately 10% at 40 mcg/mL but becomes non-linear at higher concentrations with a free fraction of 18.5% at 135 mcg/mL.Label This may be due to binding at separate high and low-affinity sites on albumin proteins.27 Binding is expected to decrease in the elderly and patients with hepatic dysfunction.

Metabolism

Most drug is metabolized to glucuronide conjugates (30-50%) of the parent drug or of metabolites.Label,27 Another large portion is metabolized through mitochondrial β-oxidation (40%). The remainder of metabolism (15-20%) occurs through oxidation, hydroxylation, and dehydrogenation at the ω, ω1, and ω2 positions resulting in the formation of hydroxyls, ketones, carboxyls, a lactone metabolite, double bonds, and combinations.

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Route of elimination

Most drug is eliminated through hepatic metabolism, about 30-50%.Label The other major contributing pathway is mitochondrial β-oxidation, about 40%. Other oxidative pathways make up an additional 15-20%. Less than 3% is excreted unchanged in the urine.

Half-life

13-19 hours.Label

The half-life in neonates ranges from 10-67 hours while the half-life in pediatric patients under 2 months of age ranges from 7-13 hours.

Clearance

0.56 L/hr/m2Label

Pediatric patients between 3 months and 10 years of age have 50% higher clearances by weight. Pediatric patients 10 years of age or older approximate adult values.Label

Adverse Effects
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Toxicity

LD50 Values

Oral, mouse: 1098 mg/kg

Oral, rat: 670 mg/kg

Overdose

Symptoms of overdose include somnolence, heart block, deep coma, and hypernatremia. Fatalities have been reported, however patients have recovered from valproate serum concentrations as high as 2120 mcg/mL. The unbound fraction may be removed by hemodialysis. Naloxone has been demonstrated to reverse the CNS depressant effects of overdose but may also reverse the anti-epileptic effects.Label

Reproductive Toxicity

Valproate use in pregnancy is known to increase the risk of neural tube defects and other structural abnormalities.Label The risk of spina bifida increases from 0.06-0.07% in the normal population to 1-2% in valproate users. The North American Antiepileptic Drug (NAAED) Pregnancy Registry reports a major malformation rate of 9-11%, 5 times the baseline rate. These malformations include neural tube defects, cardiovascular malformations, craniofacial defects (e.g., oral clefts, craniosynostosis), hypospadias, limb malformations (e.g., clubfoot, polydactyly), and other malformations of varying severity involving other body systems. Other antiepileptic drugs, lamotrigine, carbemazepine, and phenytoin, have been found to reduce IQ in children exposed in utero. Valproate was also studied however the results did not achieve statistical significance (97 IQ (CI: 94-101)). Observational studies report an absolute risk increase of 2.9% (relative risk 2.9 times baseline) of autism spectrum disorder in children exposed to valproate in utero. There have been case reports of fatal hepatic failure in children of mothers who used valproate during pregnancy.

There have been reports of male infertility when taking valproate.Label

Lactation

Valproate is excreted in human milk.Label Data in the published literature describe the presence of valproate in human milk (range: 0.4 mcg/mL to 3.9 mcg/mL), corresponding to 1% to 10% of maternal serum levels. Valproate serum concentrations collected from breastfed infants aged 3 days postnatal to 12 weeks following delivery ranged from 0.7 mcg/mL to 4 mcg/mL, which were 1% to 6% of maternal serum valproate levels. A published study in children up to six years of age did not report adverse developmental or cognitive effects following exposure to valproate via breast milk.

Other Toxicity Considerations

Use in pediatrics under 2 years of age increases the risk of fatal hepatotoxicity.Label

Pathways
PathwayCategory
Valproic Acid Metabolism PathwayDrug metabolism
Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs Browse all" title="About SNP Mediated Effects/ADRs" id="snp-actions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
Interacting Gene/EnzymeAllele nameGenotype(s)Defining Change(s)Type(s)DescriptionDetails
DNA polymerase subunit gamma-1A467T(A;A) / (A;G)G > AADR Directly StudiedThe presence of this polymorphism in POLG may indicate an increased risk of liver failure and death when treated with valproic acid.Details
DNA polymerase subunit gamma-1W748S(C;C) / (C;G)G > CADR Directly StudiedThe presence of this polymorphism in POLG may indicate an increased risk of liver failure and death when treated with valproic acid.Details

Interactions

Drug Interactions Learn More" title="About Drug Interactions" id="structured-interactions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.
DrugInteraction
1,2-BenzodiazepineThe risk or severity of CNS depression can be increased when Valproic acid is combined with 1,2-Benzodiazepine.
AbacavirThe metabolism of Abacavir can be decreased when combined with Valproic acid.
AbametapirThe serum concentration of Valproic acid can be increased when it is combined with Abametapir.
AbataceptThe metabolism of Valproic acid can be increased when combined with Abatacept.
AbemaciclibThe serum concentration of Abemaciclib can be increased when it is combined with Valproic acid.
Food Interactions
  • Avoid alcohol.
  • Avoid milk and dairy products.
  • Take with food.

Products

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Product Ingredients
IngredientUNIICASInChI Key
Divalproex sodium644VL95AO676584-70-8MSRILKIQRXUYCT-UHFFFAOYSA-M
Magnesium ValproateQ400352CM262959-43-7LKLLHOIUJVEAGU-UHFFFAOYSA-L
Valproate sodium5VOM6GYJ0D1069-66-5AEQFSUDEHCCHBT-UHFFFAOYSA-M
Product Images
International/Other Brands
Convulex / Depakine / Deprakine / Encorate / Epilim / Valcote / Valparin
Brand Name Prescription Products
NameDosageStrengthRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing EndRegionImage
DepaconInjection100 mg/1mLIntravenousAbbVie Inc.1996-12-302019-11-01US flag
DepakeneCapsule, liquid filled250 mg/1OralREMEDYREPACK INC.2018-10-032020-05-21US flag
DepakeneCapsule, liquid filled250 mg/1OralAbbVie Inc.1978-02-282019-10-11US flag
DepakeneCapsule, liquid filled250 mg/1OralREMEDYREPACK INC.2016-09-022018-08-17US flag
DepakeneSolution250 mg / 5 mLOralBgp Pharma Ulc1978-12-31Not applicableCanada flag
Generic Prescription Products
NameDosageStrengthRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing EndRegionImage
Apo-divalproexTablet, delayed release500 mg / ectOralApotex Corporation1999-03-24Not applicableCanada flag
Apo-divalproexTablet, delayed release250 mg / ectOralApotex Corporation1999-03-24Not applicableCanada flag
Apo-divalproexTablet, delayed release125 mgOralApotex Corporation1999-03-24Not applicableCanada flag
Apo-valproic AcidCapsule250 mgOralApotex Corporation1998-06-01Not applicableCanada flag
Apo-valproic Acid Oral SolutionSolution250 mg / 5 mLOralApotex Corporation1998-07-15Not applicableCanada flag
Mixture Products
NameIngredientsDosageRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing EndRegionImage
DEPAKINValproic acid (72.61 MG) + Valproate sodium (166.76 mg)Granule, delayed releaseOralSanofi S.R.L.2014-07-08Not applicableItaly flag
DEPAKINValproic acid (290.27 MG) + Valproate sodium (666.6 mg)Granule, delayed releaseOralSanofi S.R.L.2014-07-08Not applicableItaly flag
DEPAKINValproic acid (145 MG) + Valproate sodium (333 mg)Tablet, extended releaseOralSanofi S.R.L.2014-07-08Not applicableItaly flag
DEPAKINValproic acid (87 MG) + Valproate sodium (199.8 mg)Tablet, extended releaseOralSanofi S.R.L.2014-07-08Not applicableItaly flag
DEPAKINValproic acid (145.14 MG) + Valproate sodium (333.3 mg)Granule, delayed releaseOralSanofi S.R.L.2014-07-08Not applicableItaly flag

Categories

ATC Codes
N03AG01 — Valproic acid
Drug Categories
Chemical TaxonomyProvided by Classyfire
Description
This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methyl-branched fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an acyl chain that has a methyl branch. Usually, they are saturated and contain only one or more methyl group. However, branches other than methyl may be present.
Kingdom
Organic compounds
Super Class
Lipids and lipid-like molecules
Class
Fatty Acyls
Sub Class
Fatty acids and conjugates
Direct Parent
Methyl-branched fatty acids
Alternative Parents
Monocarboxylic acids and derivatives / Carboxylic acids / Organic oxides / Hydrocarbon derivatives / Carbonyl compounds
Substituents
Aliphatic acyclic compound / Carbonyl group / Carboxylic acid / Carboxylic acid derivative / Hydrocarbon derivative / Methyl-branched fatty acid / Monocarboxylic acid or derivatives / Organic oxide / Organic oxygen compound / Organooxygen compound
Molecular Framework
Aliphatic acyclic compounds
External Descriptors
branched-chain fatty acid, branched-chain saturated fatty acid (CHEBI:39867) / Branched fatty acids (LMFA01020291)
Affected organisms
  • Humans and other mammals

Chemical Identifiers

UNII
614OI1Z5WI
CAS number
99-66-1
InChI Key
NIJJYAXOARWZEE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
InChI
InChI=1S/C8H16O2/c1-3-5-7(6-4-2)8(9)10/h7H,3-6H2,1-2H3,(H,9,10)
IUPAC Name
2-propylpentanoic acid
SMILES
CCCC(CCC)C(O)=O

References

Synthesis Reference

Daniel Aubert, Francis Blanc, Henri Desmolin, Michel Morre, Lucette Sindely, "Valproic acid preparations." U.S. Patent US5017613, issued January, 1965.

US5017613
General References
  1. Rosenberg G: The mechanisms of action of valproate in neuropsychiatric disorders: can we see the forest for the trees? Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007 Aug;64(16):2090-103. [Article]
  2. Lehrman G, Hogue IB, Palmer S, Jennings C, Spina CA, Wiegand A, Landay AL, Coombs RW, Richman DD, Mellors JW, Coffin JM, Bosch RJ, Margolis DM: Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study. Lancet. 2005 Aug 13-19;366(9485):549-55. [Article]
  3. Schwartz C, Palissot V, Aouali N, Wack S, Brons NH, Leners B, Bosseler M, Berchem G: Valproic acid induces non-apoptotic cell death mechanisms in multiple myeloma cell lines. Int J Oncol. 2007 Mar;30(3):573-82. [Article]
  4. Valentini A, Gravina P, Federici G, Bernardini S: Valproic acid induces apoptosis, p16INK4A upregulation and sensitization to chemotherapy in human melanoma cells. Cancer Biol Ther. 2007 Feb;6(2):185-91. Epub 2007 Feb 5. [Article]
  5. Linde M, Mulleners WM, Chronicle EP, McCrory DC: Valproate (valproic acid or sodium valproate or a combination of the two) for the prophylaxis of episodic migraine in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jun 24;(6):CD010611. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010611. [Article]
  6. Routy JP, Tremblay CL, Angel JB, Trottier B, Rouleau D, Baril JG, Harris M, Trottier S, Singer J, Chomont N, Sekaly RP, Boulassel MR: Valproic acid in association with highly active antiretroviral therapy for reducing systemic HIV-1 reservoirs: results from a multicentre randomized clinical study. HIV Med. 2012 May;13(5):291-6. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1293.2011.00975.x. Epub 2012 Jan 26. [Article]
  7. Cipriani A, Reid K, Young AH, Macritchie K, Geddes J: Valproic acid, valproate and divalproex in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Oct 17;(10):CD003196. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003196.pub2. [Article]
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  12. El-Habr EA, Dubois LG, Burel-Vandenbos F, Bogeas A, Lipecka J, Turchi L, Lejeune FX, Coehlo PL, Yamaki T, Wittmann BM, Fareh M, Mahfoudhi E, Janin M, Narayanan A, Morvan-Dubois G, Schmitt C, Verreault M, Oliver L, Sharif A, Pallud J, Devaux B, Puget S, Korkolopoulou P, Varlet P, Ottolenghi C, Plo I, Moura-Neto V, Virolle T, Chneiweiss H, Junier MP: A driver role for GABA metabolism in controlling stem and proliferative cell state through GHB production in glioma. Acta Neuropathol. 2017 Apr;133(4):645-660. doi: 10.1007/s00401-016-1659-5. Epub 2016 Dec 28. [Article]
  13. Yamada MK, Nakanishi K, Ohba S, Nakamura T, Ikegaya Y, Nishiyama N, Matsuki N: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor promotes the maturation of GABAergic mechanisms in cultured hippocampal neurons. J Neurosci. 2002 Sep 1;22(17):7580-5. [Article]
  14. Shaltiel G, Shamir A, Shapiro J, Ding D, Dalton E, Bialer M, Harwood AJ, Belmaker RH, Greenberg ML, Agam G: Valproate decreases inositol biosynthesis. Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Dec 1;56(11):868-74. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.027. [Article]
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  17. Yi L, Wu Q, Chen N, Song G, Wang C, Zou Q, Zhang Z: Valproate Plays a Protective Role against Migraine by Inhibiting Protein Kinase C Signalling in Nitroglycerin-treated Mice. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2018 Mar;122(3):310-316. doi: 10.1111/bcpt.12915. Epub 2017 Nov 12. [Article]
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  20. Bazinet RP, Weis MT, Rapoport SI, Rosenberger TA: Valproic acid selectively inhibits conversion of arachidonic acid to arachidonoyl-CoA by brain microsomal long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetases: relevance to bipolar disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006 Jan;184(1):122-9. Epub 2005 Dec 13. [Article]
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  22. Phiel CJ, Zhang F, Huang EY, Guenther MG, Lazar MA, Klein PS: Histone deacetylase is a direct target of valproic acid, a potent anticonvulsant, mood stabilizer, and teratogen. J Biol Chem. 2001 Sep 28;276(39):36734-41. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M101287200. Epub 2001 Jul 25. [Article]
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  24. Huang Y, Doherty JJ, Dingledine R: Altered histone acetylation at glutamate receptor 2 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor genes is an early event triggered by status epilepticus. J Neurosci. 2002 Oct 1;22(19):8422-8. [Article]
  25. Kanai H, Sawa A, Chen RW, Leeds P, Chuang DM: Valproic acid inhibits histone deacetylase activity and suppresses excitotoxicity-induced GAPDH nuclear accumulation and apoptotic death in neurons. Pharmacogenomics J. 2004;4(5):336-44. [Article]
  26. Lopez-Munoz F, Baumeister AA, Hawkins MF, Alamo C: The role of serendipity in the discovery of the clinical effects of psychotropic drugs: beyond of the myth. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2012 Jan-Feb;40(1):34-42. Epub 2012 Jan 1. [Article]
  27. Zaccara G, Messori A, Moroni F: Clinical pharmacokinetics of valproic acid--1988. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1988 Dec;15(6):367-89. doi: 10.2165/00003088-198815060-00002. [Article]
  28. Depacon FDA Label (2006) [Link]
  29. Depakene FDA [Link]
  30. Depakene FDA Label (2019) [Link]
  31. FDA Approved Drug Products: Stavzor (valproic acid) delayed-release capsules for oral use [Link]
Human Metabolome Database
HMDB0001877
KEGG Drug
D00399
KEGG Compound
C07185
PubChem Compound
3121
PubChem Substance
46505925
ChemSpider
3009
BindingDB
50003616
RxNav
11118
ChEBI
39867
ChEMBL
CHEMBL109
ZINC
ZINC000003008621
Therapeutic Targets Database
DNC001659
PharmGKB
PA451846
PDBe Ligand
2PP
RxList
RxList Drug Page
Drugs.com
Drugs.com Drug Page
PDRhealth
PDRhealth Drug Page
Wikipedia
Valproate
PDB Entries
1dit
FDA label
Download (316 KB)
MSDS
Download (77.9 KB)

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials Learn More" title="About Clinical Trials" id="clinical-trials-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
PhaseStatusPurposeConditionsCount
4Active Not RecruitingOtherEpilepsy1
4CompletedNot AvailableHealthy Subjects (HS)1
4CompletedPreventionPost Cerebral Hemorrhage1
4CompletedTreatmentAcute Migraine1
4CompletedTreatmentAlcohol Withdrawal Syndrome1

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers
  • Banner pharmacaps inc
  • Abbott laboratories pharmaceutical products div
  • Catalent pharma solutions llc
  • Par pharmaceutical inc
  • Rp scherer north america div rp scherer corp
  • Usl pharma inc
  • Alpharma uspd inc
  • Apotex inc richmond hill
  • High technology pharmacal co inc
  • Pharmaceutical assoc inc div beach products
  • Sun pharmaceutical industries inc
  • Teva pharmaceuticals usa
  • Vintage pharmaceuticals llc
  • Wockhardt eu operations (swiss) ag
Packagers
  • Abbott Laboratories Ltd.
  • Apothecon
  • Atlantic Biologicals Corporation
  • Banner Pharmacaps Inc.
  • Bedford Labs
  • Ben Venue Laboratories Inc.
  • Caraco Pharmaceutical Labs
  • Cardinal Health
  • Catalent Pharma Solutions
  • Coupler Enterprises Inc.
  • Global Pharmaceuticals
  • Heartland Repack Services LLC
  • Hi Tech Pharmacal Co. Inc.
  • Impax Laboratories Inc.
  • Ivax Pharmaceuticals
  • Kaiser Foundation Hospital
  • Lake Erie Medical and Surgical Supply
  • Major Pharmaceuticals
  • Mckesson Corp.
  • Murfreesboro Pharmaceutical Nursing Supply
  • Noven Pharmaceuticals Inc.
  • Nucare Pharmaceuticals Inc.
  • Pharmaceutical Association
  • Pharmaceutical Utilization Management Program VA Inc.
  • Physicians Total Care Inc.
  • Pliva Inc.
  • Precision Dose Inc.
  • Prepackage Specialists
  • Prepak Systems Inc.
  • Professional Co.
  • Qualitest
  • Rebel Distributors Corp.
  • Remedy Repack
  • Sandoz
  • Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
  • Tya Pharmaceuticals
  • UDL Laboratories
  • USL Pharma Inc.
  • Vangard Labs Inc.
  • Vintage Pharmaceuticals Inc.
  • Watson Pharmaceuticals
  • Wockhardt Ltd.
  • Xactdose Inc.
Dosage Forms
FormRouteStrength
InjectionIntravenous500 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral125 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral250 mg / ect
Tablet, delayed releaseOral500 mg / ect
SolutionOral10.000 g
TabletOral100.000 mg
GranuleOral200 mg
GranuleOral400 mg
GranuleOral400.000 mg
TabletOral300.00 mg
SolutionOral200 mg
SyrupOral5 g
Injection, solutionParenteral100 mg/ml
CapsuleOral150 mg
Capsule, delayed releaseOral300 mg/1
CapsuleOral300 mg
Capsule, delayed releaseOral300 MG
SyrupOral50 mg/ml
CapsuleOral500 mg
TabletOral300 mg
TabletOral
TabletOral500 mg
SolutionOral20.000 g
SuspensionOral4.000 g
TabletOral400.0000 mg
CapsuleOral250.000 mg
SyrupOral5.000 g
Capsule, liquid filledOral250 mg
GranuleOral100 MG
GranuleOral1000 MG
GranuleOral250 MG
GranuleOral50 MG
GranuleOral500 MG
GranuleOral750 MG
Granule, delayed releaseOral
Powder, for solutionIntravenous400 MG/4ML
SolutionOral200 MG/ML
Tablet, coatedOral300 MG
Tablet, coatedOral500 MG
Tablet, extended releaseOral
SyrupOral57.64 mg/ml
Solution / dropsOral300 mg/ml
Tablet, film coatedOral500 mg
Injection, powder, for solutionParenteral400 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral
Tablet, extended releaseOral250 mg/1
Tablet, extended releaseOral500 mg/1
Tablet, extended releaseOral
Tablet, film coated, extended releaseOral
SolutionOral
SyrupOral250 mg / 5 mL
Tablet, extended releaseOral250 mg
CapsuleOral125 mg/1
Capsule, coated pelletsOral125 mg/1
Tablet, delayed releaseOral125 mg/1
Tablet, delayed releaseOral250 mg/1
Tablet, delayed releaseOral500 mg/1
Tablet, extended releaseOral500 1/1
Tablet, extended releaseOral583159 Mg
Tablet, film coated, extended releaseOral250 mg/1
Tablet, film coated, extended releaseOral500 mg/1
Tablet, film coatedOral125 mg/1
Tablet, film coatedOral250 mg/1
Tablet, film coatedOral500 mg/1
Tablet, delayed release particlesOral500 mg/1
TabletOral600.000 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral300 mg
LiquidIntravenous500 mg / 5 mL
Tablet, delayed releaseOral269.1 MG
Tablet, coatedOral200.00 mg
Tablet, film coatedOral199.8 mg
Injection, solutionIntravenous400 mg/mL
SyrupOral200 mg/5ml
Injection, powder, for solutionIntravenous400 mg
TabletOral250.000 mg
SolutionOral300 mg
SyrupOral
SolutionOral37.5 g
Capsule, coatedOral250 mg
CapsuleOral250 mg / cap
SolutionOral200 mg/5mL
Tablet, extended releaseOral270 Mg
Tablet, extended releaseOral540 Mg
TabletOral200.000 mg
TabletOral500.00 mg
TabletOral538.00 mg
SolutionOral5.760 g
Capsule, extended releaseOral
GranuleOral
Tablet, sugar coatedOral150 mg
Tablet, sugar coatedOral300 mg
SolutionOral60 MG/ML
Tablet, sugar coatedOral600 mg
Tablet, extended releaseOral300 MG
Tablet, extended releaseOral1000 MG
Capsule, extended releaseOral150 MG
Capsule, extended releaseOral300 MG
CapsuleOral250 mg
SolutionOral250 mg / 5 mL
Capsule, delayed releaseOral500 mg
Tablet, film coatedOral
SolutionIntravenous500 mg
SyrupOral50 mg / mL
SyrupOral250 mg/5ml
Injection, solution400 mg/4ml
Injection, solutionIntravenous400 mg/4ml
Injection, solutionIntravenous100.0 mg/ml
Capsule, delayed releaseOral125 mg/1
Capsule, delayed releaseOral250 mg/1
Capsule, delayed releaseOral500 mg/1
TabletOral83.000 mg
Tablet, film coatedOral538.1 mg
Capsule, coatedOral125 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral250 mg
Tablet, extended releaseOral50000000 mg
Tablet, film coated, extended releaseOral
Tablet, film coatedOral
Tablet, delayed releaseOral200 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral500 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral600 MG
SolutionOral300 MG/G
SolutionOral300 MG/ML
Tablet, delayed releaseOral150 MG
InjectionIntravenous100 mg/1mL
InjectionIntravenous500 mg/5mL
Injection, solutionIntravenous100 mg/1mL
Solution / dropsOral
Capsule, liquid filledOral250 mg/1
CapsuleOral250 mg/1
SolutionOral250 mg/5mL
SolutionOral500 mg/10mL
TabletOral250 mg/1
TabletOral260.6 mg
SolutionIntravenous400 mg
TabletOral400.000 mg
TabletOral269.070 mg
TabletOral269.07 mg
Tablet, delayed releaseOral478 mg
Powder400 mg/4ml
SyrupOral200 mg/1ml
Solution200 mg/1ml
SolutionOral200 mg/1ml
Tablet, extended releaseOral500 mg
Prices
Unit descriptionCostUnit
Valproic acid liquid10.2USD g
Depakene 250 mg capsule2.21USD capsule
Valproic acid 250 mg capsule0.79USD capsule
Depakene 250 mg/5ml Syrup0.66USD ml
Novo-Valproic 500 mg Enteric-Coated Capsule0.54USD capsule
Pms-Valproic Acid E.C. 500 mg Enteric-Coated Capsule0.54USD capsule
Apo-Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Mylan-Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Novo-Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Nu-Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Pms-Valproic Acid 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Ratio-Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Sandoz Valproic 250 mg Capsule0.27USD capsule
Valproic Acid 250 mg/5ml Syrup0.16USD ml
Valproic acid 250 mg/5 ml syr0.15USD ml
Depakene 50 mg/ml Syrup0.11USD ml
Apo-Valproic 50 mg/ml Syrup0.06USD ml
Pms-Valproic Acid 50 mg/ml Syrup0.06USD ml
Ratio-Valproic 50 mg/ml Syrup0.06USD ml
DrugBank does not sell nor buy drugs. Pricing information is supplied for informational purposes only.
Patents
Patent NumberPediatric ExtensionApprovedExpires (estimated)Region
US6713086Yes2004-03-302019-06-18US flag
US6720004Yes2004-04-132019-06-18US flag
US6511678Yes2003-01-282019-06-18US flag
US6528090Yes2003-03-042019-06-18US flag
US6528091Yes2003-03-042019-06-18US flag
US6419953Yes2002-07-162019-06-18US flag

Properties

State
Solid
Experimental Properties
PropertyValueSource
boiling point (°C)222ChemIDplus
water solubility1.3 mg/mLFDA label (2006)
logP2.75ChemIDplus
logS-1.86ADME Research, USCD
pKa4.8FDA label (2006)
Predicted Properties
PropertyValueSource
Water Solubility2.36 mg/mLALOGPS
logP2.54ALOGPS
logP2.8Chemaxon
logS-1.8ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)5.14Chemaxon
Physiological Charge-1Chemaxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count2Chemaxon
Hydrogen Donor Count1Chemaxon
Polar Surface Area37.3 Å2Chemaxon
Rotatable Bond Count5Chemaxon
Refractivity40.25 m3·mol-1Chemaxon
Polarizability17 Å3Chemaxon
Number of Rings0Chemaxon
Bioavailability1Chemaxon
Rule of FiveYesChemaxon
Ghose FilterNoChemaxon
Veber's RuleYesChemaxon
MDDR-like RuleNoChemaxon
Predicted ADMET Features
PropertyValueProbability
Human Intestinal Absorption+0.9828
Blood Brain Barrier+0.9626
Caco-2 permeable+0.8866
P-glycoprotein substrateNon-substrate0.7345
P-glycoprotein inhibitor INon-inhibitor0.9695
P-glycoprotein inhibitor IINon-inhibitor0.7405
Renal organic cation transporterNon-inhibitor0.9277
CYP450 2C9 substrateNon-substrate0.8247
CYP450 2D6 substrateNon-substrate0.9115
CYP450 3A4 substrateNon-substrate0.7033
CYP450 1A2 substrateNon-inhibitor0.5447
CYP450 2C9 inhibitorNon-inhibitor0.8174
CYP450 2D6 inhibitorNon-inhibitor0.9397
CYP450 2C19 inhibitorNon-inhibitor0.957
CYP450 3A4 inhibitorNon-inhibitor0.9583
CYP450 inhibitory promiscuityLow CYP Inhibitory Promiscuity0.9364
Ames testNon AMES toxic0.9805
CarcinogenicityNon-carcinogens0.5266
BiodegradationReady biodegradable0.8523
Rat acute toxicity1.8543 LD50, mol/kg Not applicable
hERG inhibition (predictor I)Weak inhibitor0.9357
hERG inhibition (predictor II)Non-inhibitor0.9249
ADMET data is predicted using admetSAR, a free tool for evaluating chemical ADMET properties. (23092397)

Spectra

Mass Spec (NIST)
Download (8.07 KB)
Spectra
SpectrumSpectrum TypeSplash Key
Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MSPredicted GC-MSsplash10-004m-9300000000-e66da5fefd079f7426a4
Mass Spectrum (Electron Ionization)MSsplash10-0fk9-9300000000-1a0314ea63d5a3c9bba1
MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, N/A (Annotated)LC-MS/MSsplash10-0udi-2900000000-156413e81733a6236c1f
MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, N/A (Annotated)LC-MS/MSsplash10-0f6y-2900000000-a769cafb885b78532cac
MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, N/A (Annotated)LC-MS/MSsplash10-0gbj-7900000000-46a522b9a26459334f5a
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 10V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-39a45d4e3201082d9d89
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 20V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0002-9000000000-4ddd957d8c8dc2b1de03
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 10V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-6ba582ae102c4721034d
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 20V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-58d9ba88010f1b370c58
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 30V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-3900000000-2d1032d7e8ac58235b4f
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 40V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0a4j-9000000000-0d39870bc4521a42c50a
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 50V, NegativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-00di-9000000000-3c4e21b69b8877d6df3e
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-39a45d4e3201082d9d89
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0002-9000000000-4ddd957d8c8dc2b1de03
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-6ba582ae102c4721034d
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-58d9ba88010f1b370c58
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-3900000000-2d1032d7e8ac58235b4f
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0a4j-9000000000-0d39870bc4521a42c50a
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-00di-9000000000-3c4e21b69b8877d6df3e
MS/MS Spectrum - Linear Ion Trap , negativeLC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-5b83f0d6c36f8249285a
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-05mn-9100000000-1296c85264d729ebdd60
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-0006-0900000000-41f1697912c937aa72fe
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-0002-9100000000-b0decd8eb32a392ef900
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-0a4u-9000000000-dca6f0202defe9675c4d
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-0a4i-9000000000-4e09e902a4b7ea32569b
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative (Annotated)Predicted LC-MS/MSsplash10-052f-9000000000-2c2d7ecfe9ea944eeaf4
1H NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
1H NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
13C NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
Predicted 1H NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
Predicted 13C NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
[1H,13C] 2D NMR Spectrum2D NMRNot Applicable
Chromatographic Properties
Collision Cross Sections (CCS)
AdductCCS Value (Å2)Source typeSource
[M-H]-134.9790161
predicted
DarkChem Lite v0.1.0
[M-H]-135.0536161
predicted
DarkChem Lite v0.1.0
[M-H]-134.65881
predicted
DeepCCS 1.0 (2019)
[M+H]+137.54492
predicted
DeepCCS 1.0 (2019)
[M+Na]+146.34946
predicted
DeepCCS 1.0 (2019)

Targets

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Details
1. Histone deacetylase 9
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Transcription factor binding
Specific Function
Responsible for the deacetylation of lysine residues on the N-terminal part of the core histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4). Histone deacetylation gives a tag for epigenetic repression and plays an impo...
Gene Name
HDAC9
Uniprot ID
Q9UKV0
Uniprot Name
Histone deacetylase 9
Molecular Weight
111296.29 Da
References
  1. Ylisastigui L, Archin NM, Lehrman G, Bosch RJ, Margolis DM: Coaxing HIV-1 from resting CD4 T cells: histone deacetylase inhibition allows latent viral expression. AIDS. 2004 May 21;18(8):1101-8. [Article]
  2. Michaelis M, Kohler N, Reinisch A, Eikel D, Gravemann U, Doerr HW, Nau H, Cinatl J Jr: Increased human cytomegalovirus replication in fibroblasts after treatment with therapeutical plasma concentrations of valproic acid. Biochem Pharmacol. 2004 Aug 1;68(3):531-8. [Article]
  3. Kanai H, Sawa A, Chen RW, Leeds P, Chuang DM: Valproic acid inhibits histone deacetylase activity and suppresses excitotoxicity-induced GAPDH nuclear accumulation and apoptotic death in neurons. Pharmacogenomics J. 2004;4(5):336-44. [Article]
  4. Stockhausen MT, Sjolund J, Manetopoulos C, Axelson H: Effects of the histone deacetylase inhibitor valproic acid on Notch signalling in human neuroblastoma cells. Br J Cancer. 2005 Feb 28;92(4):751-9. [Article]
  5. Beutler AS, Li S, Nicol R, Walsh MJ: Carbamazepine is an inhibitor of histone deacetylases. Life Sci. 2005 May 13;76(26):3107-15. [Article]
  6. Rosenberg G: The mechanisms of action of valproate in neuropsychiatric disorders: can we see the forest for the trees? Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007 Aug;64(16):2090-103. [Article]
  7. Kawano T, Akiyama M, Agawa-Ohta M, Mikami-Terao Y, Iwase S, Yanagisawa T, Ida H, Agata N, Yamada H: Histone deacetylase inhibitors valproic acid and depsipeptide sensitize retinoblastoma cells to radiotherapy by increasing H2AX phosphorylation and p53 acetylation-phosphorylation. Int J Oncol. 2010 Oct;37(4):787-95. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Oxidoreductase activity, acting on the ch-ch group of donors, with a flavin as acceptor
Specific Function
Has greatest activity toward short branched chain acyl-CoA derivative such as (s)-2-methylbutyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, and 2-methylhexanoyl-CoA as well as toward short straight chain acyl-CoAs such...
Gene Name
ACADSB
Uniprot ID
P45954
Uniprot Name
Short/branched chain specific acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
Molecular Weight
47485.035 Da
References
  1. Ito M, Ikeda Y, Arnez JG, Finocchiaro G, Tanaka K: The enzymatic basis for the metabolism and inhibitory effects of valproic acid: dehydrogenation of valproyl-CoA by 2-methyl-branched-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990 May 16;1034(2):213-8. [Article]
  2. Bazinet RP, Weis MT, Rapoport SI, Rosenberger TA: Valproic acid selectively inhibits conversion of arachidonic acid to arachidonoyl-CoA by brain microsomal long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetases: relevance to bipolar disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006 Jan;184(1):122-9. Epub 2005 Dec 13. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Thiamine pyrophosphate binding
Specific Function
The 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex catalyzes the overall conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA and CO(2). It contains multiple copies of three enzymatic components: 2-oxoglutarate dehy...
Gene Name
OGDH
Uniprot ID
Q02218
Uniprot Name
2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
Molecular Weight
115934.37 Da
References
  1. Johannessen CU, Johannessen SI: Valproate: past, present, and future. CNS Drug Rev. 2003 Summer;9(2):199-216. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase [nad(p)+] activity
Specific Function
Catalyzes one step in the degradation of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Gene Name
ALDH5A1
Uniprot ID
P51649
Uniprot Name
Succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, mitochondrial
Molecular Weight
57214.23 Da
References
  1. Johannessen CU, Johannessen SI: Valproate: past, present, and future. CNS Drug Rev. 2003 Summer;9(2):199-216. [Article]
Kind
Protein group
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Voltage-gated sodium channel activity
Specific Function
Mediates the voltage-dependent sodium ion permeability of excitable membranes. Assuming opened or closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane, the protein forms a...

Components:
References
  1. Farber NB, Jiang XP, Heinkel C, Nemmers B: Antiepileptic drugs and agents that inhibit voltage-gated sodium channels prevent NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7(7):726-33. [Article]
Details
6. Histone deacetylase 2
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Transcription factor binding
Specific Function
Responsible for the deacetylation of lysine residues on the N-terminal part of the core histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4). Histone deacetylation gives a tag for epigenetic repression and plays an impo...
Gene Name
HDAC2
Uniprot ID
Q92769
Uniprot Name
Histone deacetylase 2
Molecular Weight
55363.855 Da
References
  1. Kramer OH, Zhu P, Ostendorff HP, Golebiewski M, Tiefenbach J, Peters MA, Brill B, Groner B, Bach I, Heinzel T, Gottlicher M: The histone deacetylase inhibitor valproic acid selectively induces proteasomal degradation of HDAC2. EMBO J. 2003 Jul 1;22(13):3411-20. [Article]
  2. Gottlicher M: Valproic acid: an old drug newly discovered as inhibitor of histone deacetylases. Ann Hematol. 2004;83 Suppl 1:S91-2. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Zinc ion binding
Specific Function
Ligand-activated transcription factor. Key regulator of lipid metabolism. Activated by the endogenous ligand 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine (16:0/18:1-GPC). Activated by oleyleth...
Gene Name
PPARA
Uniprot ID
Q07869
Uniprot Name
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
Molecular Weight
52224.595 Da
References
  1. Szalowska E, van der Burg B, Man HY, Hendriksen PJ, Peijnenburg AA: Model steatogenic compounds (amiodarone, valproic acid, and tetracycline) alter lipid metabolism by different mechanisms in mouse liver slices. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 29;9(1):e86795. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086795. eCollection 2014. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Zinc ion binding
Specific Function
Ligand-activated transcription factor. Receptor that binds peroxisome proliferators such as hypolipidemic drugs and fatty acids. Has a preference for poly-unsaturated fatty acids, such as gamma-lin...
Gene Name
PPARD
Uniprot ID
Q03181
Uniprot Name
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta
Molecular Weight
49902.99 Da
References
  1. Szalowska E, van der Burg B, Man HY, Hendriksen PJ, Peijnenburg AA: Model steatogenic compounds (amiodarone, valproic acid, and tetracycline) alter lipid metabolism by different mechanisms in mouse liver slices. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 29;9(1):e86795. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086795. eCollection 2014. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Zinc ion binding
Specific Function
Nuclear receptor that binds peroxisome proliferators such as hypolipidemic drugs and fatty acids. Once activated by a ligand, the nuclear receptor binds to DNA specific PPAR response elements (PPRE...
Gene Name
PPARG
Uniprot ID
P37231
Uniprot Name
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma
Molecular Weight
57619.58 Da
References
  1. Szalowska E, van der Burg B, Man HY, Hendriksen PJ, Peijnenburg AA: Model steatogenic compounds (amiodarone, valproic acid, and tetracycline) alter lipid metabolism by different mechanisms in mouse liver slices. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 29;9(1):e86795. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086795. eCollection 2014. [Article]
Kind
Protein group
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Transcription regulatory region sequence-specific dna binding
Specific Function
Responsible for the deacetylation of lysine residues on the N-terminal part of the core histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4). Histone deacetylation gives a tag for epigenetic repression and plays an impo...

Components:
References
  1. Booth L, Roberts JL, Poklepovic A, Dent P: [pemetrexed + sildenafil], via autophagy-dependent HDAC downregulation, enhances the immunotherapy response of NSCLC cells. Cancer Biol Ther. 2017 Sep 2;18(9):705-714. doi: 10.1080/15384047.2017.1362511. [Article]
  2. Nelson-DeGrave VL, Wickenheisser JK, Cockrell JE, Wood JR, Legro RS, Strauss JF 3rd, McAllister JM: Valproate potentiates androgen biosynthesis in human ovarian theca cells. Endocrinology. 2004 Feb;145(2):799-808. Epub 2003 Oct 23. [Article]
  3. Chabane N, Li X, Fahmi H: HDAC4 contributes to IL-1-induced mPGES-1 expression in human synovial fibroblasts through up-regulation of Egr-1 transcriptional activity. J Cell Biochem. 2009 Feb 15;106(3):453-63. doi: 10.1002/jcb.22027. [Article]
  4. Rocchi P, Tonelli R, Camerin C, Purgato S, Fronza R, Bianucci F, Guerra F, Pession A, Ferreri AM: p21Waf1/Cip1 is a common target induced by short-chain fatty acid HDAC inhibitors (valproic acid, tributyrin and sodium butyrate) in neuroblastoma cells. Oncol Rep. 2005 Jun;13(6):1139-44. [Article]
  5. Kouraklis G, Theocharis S: Histone deacetylase inhibitors and anticancer therapy. Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents. 2002 Jul;2(4):477-84. doi: 10.2174/1568011023353921. [Article]
  6. Chang MC, Chen YJ, Lian YC, Chang BE, Huang CC, Huang WL, Pan YH, Jeng JH: Butyrate Stimulates Histone H3 Acetylation, 8-Isoprostane Production, RANKL Expression, and Regulated Osteoprotegerin Expression/Secretion in MG-63 Osteoblastic Cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Dec 17;19(12). pii: ijms19124071. doi: 10.3390/ijms19124071. [Article]
  7. Matsumoto Y, Motoki T, Kubota S, Takigawa M, Tsubouchi H, Gohda E: Inhibition of tumor-stromal interaction through HGF/Met signaling by valproic acid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2008 Feb 1;366(1):110-6. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.089. Epub 2007 Nov 29. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Regulator
General Function
May be involved in p53/TP53 mediated inhibition of cellular proliferation in response to DNA damage. Binds to and inhibits cyclin-dependent kinase activity, preventing phosphorylation of critical cyclin-dependent kinase substrates and blocking cell cycle progression. Functions in the nuclear localization and assembly of cyclin D-CDK4 complex and promotes its kinase activity towards RB1. At higher stoichiometric ratios, inhibits the kinase activity of the cyclin D-CDK4 complex. Inhibits DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase delta by competing with POLD3 for PCNA binding (PubMed:11595739).
Specific Function
Cyclin binding
Gene Name
CDKN1A
Uniprot ID
P38936
Uniprot Name
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1
Molecular Weight
18119.145 Da
References
  1. Rocchi P, Tonelli R, Camerin C, Purgato S, Fronza R, Bianucci F, Guerra F, Pession A, Ferreri AM: p21Waf1/Cip1 is a common target induced by short-chain fatty acid HDAC inhibitors (valproic acid, tributyrin and sodium butyrate) in neuroblastoma cells. Oncol Rep. 2005 Jun;13(6):1139-44. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Serine-type endopeptidase activity
Specific Function
Potent mitogen for mature parenchymal hepatocyte cells, seems to be a hepatotrophic factor, and acts as a growth factor for a broad spectrum of tissues and cell types. Activating ligand for the rec...
Gene Name
HGF
Uniprot ID
P14210
Uniprot Name
Hepatocyte growth factor
Molecular Weight
83133.115 Da
References
  1. Matsumoto Y, Motoki T, Kubota S, Takigawa M, Tsubouchi H, Gohda E: Inhibition of tumor-stromal interaction through HGF/Met signaling by valproic acid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2008 Feb 1;366(1):110-6. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.089. Epub 2007 Nov 29. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Downregulator
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
Key enzyme of polyamine biosynthesis that converts ornithine into putrescine, which is the precursor for the polyamines, spermidine and spermine.
Gene Name
ODC1
Uniprot ID
P11926
Uniprot Name
Ornithine decarboxylase
Molecular Weight
51147.73 Da
References
  1. Booth L, Roberts JL, Poklepovic A, Dent P: [pemetrexed + sildenafil], via autophagy-dependent HDAC downregulation, enhances the immunotherapy response of NSCLC cells. Cancer Biol Ther. 2017 Sep 2;18(9):705-714. doi: 10.1080/15384047.2017.1362511. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Downregulator
General Function
Not Available
Specific Function
Involved in the costimulatory signal, essential for T-cell proliferation and production of IL10 and IFNG, in an IL2-dependent and a PDCD1-independent manner. Interaction with PDCD1 inhibits T-cell ...
Gene Name
CD274
Uniprot ID
Q9NZQ7
Uniprot Name
Programmed cell death 1 ligand 1
Molecular Weight
33275.095 Da
References
  1. Booth L, Roberts JL, Poklepovic A, Dent P: [pemetrexed + sildenafil], via autophagy-dependent HDAC downregulation, enhances the immunotherapy response of NSCLC cells. Cancer Biol Ther. 2017 Sep 2;18(9):705-714. doi: 10.1080/15384047.2017.1362511. [Article]

Enzymes

Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Steroid hydroxylase activity
Specific Function
Exhibits a high coumarin 7-hydroxylase activity. Can act in the hydroxylation of the anti-cancer drugs cyclophosphamide and ifosphamide. Competent in the metabolic activation of aflatoxin B1. Const...
Gene Name
CYP2A6
Uniprot ID
P11509
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 2A6
Molecular Weight
56501.005 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
  2. Raunio H, Rautio A, Gullsten H, Pelkonen O: Polymorphisms of CYP2A6 and its practical consequences. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Oct;52(4):357-63. [Article]
  3. Rendic S: Summary of information on human CYP enzymes: human P450 metabolism data. Drug Metab Rev. 2002 Feb-May;34(1-2):83-448. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Steroid hydroxylase activity
Specific Function
Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It oxidizes a variety of structurally un...
Gene Name
CYP2B6
Uniprot ID
P20813
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 2B6
Molecular Weight
56277.81 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
  2. Hedrich WD, Hassan HE, Wang H: Insights into CYP2B6-mediated drug-drug interactions. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2016 Sep;6(5):413-425. doi: 10.1016/j.apsb.2016.07.016. Epub 2016 Aug 9. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
Inhibitor
General Function
Steroid hydroxylase activity
Specific Function
Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It oxidizes a variety of structurally un...
Gene Name
CYP2C9
Uniprot ID
P11712
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 2C9
Molecular Weight
55627.365 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
  2. Amini-Shirazi N, Ghahremani MH, Ahmadkhaniha R, Mandegary A, Dadgar A, Abdollahi M, Shadnia S, Pakdaman H, Kebriaeezadeh A: Influence of CYP2C9 polymorphism on metabolism of valproate and its hepatotoxin metabolite in Iranian patients. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2010 Oct;20(8):452-7. doi: 10.3109/15376516.2010.497977. [Article]
  3. Gunes A, Bilir E, Zengil H, Babaoglu MO, Bozkurt A, Yasar U: Inhibitory effect of valproic acid on cytochrome P450 2C9 activity in epilepsy patients. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007 Jun;100(6):383-6. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00061.x. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Oxygen binding
Specific Function
Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It oxidizes a variety of structurally un...
Gene Name
CYP3A5
Uniprot ID
P20815
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 3A5
Molecular Weight
57108.065 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase activity
Specific Function
Converts arachidonate to prostaglandin H2 (PGH2), a committed step in prostanoid synthesis. Involved in the constitutive production of prostanoids in particular in the stomach and platelets. In gas...
Gene Name
PTGS1
Uniprot ID
P23219
Uniprot Name
Prostaglandin G/H synthase 1
Molecular Weight
68685.82 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
Curator comments
Data supported only by in vitro studies.
General Function
Oxidoreductase activity, acting on paired donors, with incorporation or reduction of molecular oxygen, reduced flavin or flavoprotein as one donor, and incorporation of one atom of oxygen
Specific Function
Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It oxidizes a variety of structurally un...
Gene Name
CYP1A2
Uniprot ID
P05177
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 1A2
Molecular Weight
58293.76 Da
References
  1. Facciola G, Avenoso A, Scordo MG, Madia AG, Ventimiglia A, Perucca E, Spina E: Small effects of valproic acid on the plasma concentrations of clozapine and its major metabolites in patients with schizophrenic or affective disorders. Ther Drug Monit. 1999 Jun;21(3):341-5. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
Inhibitor
General Function
Steroid hydroxylase activity
Specific Function
Responsible for the metabolism of a number of therapeutic agents such as the anticonvulsant drug S-mephenytoin, omeprazole, proguanil, certain barbiturates, diazepam, propranolol, citalopram and im...
Gene Name
CYP2C19
Uniprot ID
P33261
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 2C19
Molecular Weight
55930.545 Da
References
  1. Fleming J, Chetty M: Psychotropic drug interactions with valproate. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005 Mar-Apr;28(2):96-101. [Article]
  2. Anderson GD: A mechanistic approach to antiepileptic drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother. 1998 May;32(5):554-63. doi: 10.1345/aph.17332. [Article]
  3. Gunes A, Bilir E, Zengil H, Babaoglu MO, Bozkurt A, Yasar U: Inhibitory effect of valproic acid on cytochrome P450 2C9 activity in epilepsy patients. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007 Jun;100(6):383-6. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00061.x. [Article]
  4. Wen X, Wang JS, Kivisto KT, Neuvonen PJ, Backman JT: In vitro evaluation of valproic acid as an inhibitor of human cytochrome P450 isoforms: preferential inhibition of cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9). Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Nov;52(5):547-53. doi: 10.1046/j.0306-5251.2001.01474.x. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Vitamin d3 25-hydroxylase activity
Specific Function
Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It performs a variety of oxidation react...
Gene Name
CYP3A4
Uniprot ID
P08684
Uniprot Name
Cytochrome P450 3A4
Molecular Weight
57342.67 Da
References
  1. Facciola G, Avenoso A, Scordo MG, Madia AG, Ventimiglia A, Perucca E, Spina E: Small effects of valproic acid on the plasma concentrations of clozapine and its major metabolites in patients with schizophrenic or affective disorders. Ther Drug Monit. 1999 Jun;21(3):341-5. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. This isoform glucuronidates bilirubin IX-alpha to form both the...
Gene Name
UGT1A4
Uniprot ID
P22310
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-4
Molecular Weight
60024.535 Da
References
  1. Argikar UA, Remmel RP: Effect of aging on glucuronidation of valproic acid in human liver microsomes and the role of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT1A4, UGT1A8, and UGT1A10. Drug Metab Dispos. 2009 Jan;37(1):229-36. doi: 10.1124/dmd.108.022426. Epub 2008 Oct 6. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Steroid binding
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. Isoform 2 lacks transferase activity but acts as a negative reg...
Gene Name
UGT1A8
Uniprot ID
Q9HAW9
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-8
Molecular Weight
59741.035 Da
References
  1. Krishnaswamy S, Hao Q, Al-Rohaimi A, Hesse LM, von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Court MH: UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A6 pharmacogenetics: II. Functional impact of the three most common nonsynonymous UGT1A6 polymorphisms (S7A, T181A, and R184S). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Jun;313(3):1340-6. Epub 2005 Mar 10. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Protein kinase c binding
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. Isoform 2 lacks transferase activity but acts as a negative reg...
Gene Name
UGT1A10
Uniprot ID
Q9HAW8
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-10
Molecular Weight
59809.075 Da
References
  1. Krishnaswamy S, Hao Q, Al-Rohaimi A, Hesse LM, von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Court MH: UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A6 pharmacogenetics: II. Functional impact of the three most common nonsynonymous UGT1A6 polymorphisms (S7A, T181A, and R184S). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Jun;313(3):1340-6. Epub 2005 Mar 10. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. This isoform has specificity for phenols. Isoform 3 lacks trans...
Gene Name
UGT1A6
Uniprot ID
P19224
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-6
Molecular Weight
60750.215 Da
References
  1. Krishnaswamy S, Hao Q, Al-Rohaimi A, Hesse LM, von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Court MH: UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A6 pharmacogenetics: II. Functional impact of the three most common nonsynonymous UGT1A6 polymorphisms (S7A, T181A, and R184S). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Jun;313(3):1340-6. Epub 2005 Mar 10. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Retinoic acid binding
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. Isoform 2 lacks transferase activity but acts as a negative reg...
Gene Name
UGT1A3
Uniprot ID
P35503
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-3
Molecular Weight
60337.835 Da
References
  1. Krishnaswamy S, Hao Q, Al-Rohaimi A, Hesse LM, von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Court MH: UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A6 pharmacogenetics: II. Functional impact of the three most common nonsynonymous UGT1A6 polymorphisms (S7A, T181A, and R184S). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Jun;313(3):1340-6. Epub 2005 Mar 10. [Article]
  2. Argikar UA, Remmel RP: Effect of aging on glucuronidation of valproic acid in human liver microsomes and the role of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT1A4, UGT1A8, and UGT1A10. Drug Metab Dispos. 2009 Jan;37(1):229-36. doi: 10.1124/dmd.108.022426. Epub 2008 Oct 6. [Article]
  3. Chung JY, Cho JY, Yu KS, Kim JR, Lim KS, Sohn DR, Shin SG, Jang IJ: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction of lorazepam and valproic acid in relation to UGT2B7 genetic polymorphism in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Apr;83(4):595-600. Epub 2007 Aug 8. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Glucuronosyltransferase activity
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds.Its unique specificity for 3,4-catechol estrogens and estriol su...
Gene Name
UGT2B7
Uniprot ID
P16662
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B7
Molecular Weight
60694.12 Da
References
  1. Chung JY, Cho JY, Yu KS, Kim JR, Lim KS, Sohn DR, Shin SG, Jang IJ: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction of lorazepam and valproic acid in relation to UGT2B7 genetic polymorphism in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Apr;83(4):595-600. Epub 2007 Aug 8. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Glucuronosyltransferase activity
Specific Function
UDPGTs are of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. This isozyme displays activity toward several classes of xeno...
Gene Name
UGT2B15
Uniprot ID
P54855
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B15
Molecular Weight
61035.815 Da
References
  1. Chung JY, Cho JY, Yu KS, Kim JR, Lim KS, Sohn DR, Shin SG, Jang IJ: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction of lorazepam and valproic acid in relation to UGT2B7 genetic polymorphism in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Apr;83(4):595-600. Epub 2007 Aug 8. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Retinoic acid binding
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. This isoform has specificity for phenols. Isoform 2 lacks trans...
Gene Name
UGT1A9
Uniprot ID
O60656
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-9
Molecular Weight
59940.495 Da
References
  1. Zhou SF, Zhou ZW, Yang LP, Cai JP: Substrates, inducers, inhibitors and structure-activity relationships of human Cytochrome P450 2C9 and implications in drug development. Curr Med Chem. 2009;16(27):3480-675. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
No
Actions
Substrate
Inhibitor
General Function
Steroid binding
Specific Function
UDPGT is of major importance in the conjugation and subsequent elimination of potentially toxic xenobiotics and endogenous compounds. This isoform glucuronidates bilirubin IX-alpha to form both the...
Gene Name
UGT1A1
Uniprot ID
P22309
Uniprot Name
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-1
Molecular Weight
59590.91 Da
References
  1. Interactions [Link]

Carriers

Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Toxic substance binding
Specific Function
Serum albumin, the main protein of plasma, has a good binding capacity for water, Ca(2+), Na(+), K(+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin and drugs. Its main function is the regulation of the colloid...
Gene Name
ALB
Uniprot ID
P02768
Uniprot Name
Serum albumin
Molecular Weight
69365.94 Da
References
  1. Dasgupta A, Emerson L: Interaction of valproic acid with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs mefenamic acid and fenoprofen in normal and uremic sera: lack of interaction in uremic sera due to the presence of endogenous factors. Ther Drug Monit. 1996 Dec;18(6):654-9. [Article]

Transporters

Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Involved in the renal elimination of endogenous and exogenous organic anions. Functions as organic anion exchanger when the uptake of one molecule of organic anion is coupled with an efflux of one ...
Gene Name
SLC22A6
Uniprot ID
Q4U2R8
Uniprot Name
Solute carrier family 22 member 6
Molecular Weight
61815.78 Da
References
  1. Sekine T, Watanabe N, Hosoyamada M, Kanai Y, Endou H: Expression cloning and characterization of a novel multispecific organic anion transporter. J Biol Chem. 1997 Jul 25;272(30):18526-9. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
Inhibitor
General Function
Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Plays an important role in the excretion/detoxification of endogenous and exogenous organic anions, especially from the brain and kidney. Involved in the transport basolateral of steviol, fexofenad...
Gene Name
SLC22A8
Uniprot ID
Q8TCC7
Uniprot Name
Solute carrier family 22 member 8
Molecular Weight
59855.585 Da
References
  1. Ohtsuki S, Asaba H, Takanaga H, Deguchi T, Hosoya K, Otagiri M, Terasaki T: Role of blood-brain barrier organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3) in the efflux of indoxyl sulfate, a uremic toxin: its involvement in neurotransmitter metabolite clearance from the brain. J Neurochem. 2002 Oct;83(1):57-66. [Article]
  2. Cha SH, Sekine T, Fukushima JI, Kanai Y, Kobayashi Y, Goya T, Endou H: Identification and characterization of human organic anion transporter 3 expressing predominantly in the kidney. Mol Pharmacol. 2001 May;59(5):1277-86. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Symporter activity
Specific Function
Sodium-ion dependent, high affinity carnitine transporter. Involved in the active cellular uptake of carnitine. Transports one sodium ion with one molecule of carnitine. Also transports organic cat...
Gene Name
SLC22A5
Uniprot ID
O76082
Uniprot Name
Solute carrier family 22 member 5
Molecular Weight
62751.08 Da
References
  1. Ohashi R, Tamai I, Yabuuchi H, Nezu JI, Oku A, Sai Y, Shimane M, Tsuji A: Na(+)-dependent carnitine transport by organic cation transporter (OCTN2): its pharmacological and toxicological relevance. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999 Nov;291(2):778-84. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Symporter activity
Specific Function
Proton-coupled monocarboxylate transporter. Catalyzes the rapid transport across the plasma membrane of many monocarboxylates such as lactate, pyruvate, branched-chain oxo acids derived from leucin...
Gene Name
SLC16A1
Uniprot ID
P53985
Uniprot Name
Monocarboxylate transporter 1
Molecular Weight
53943.685 Da
References
  1. Tamai I, Sai Y, Ono A, Kido Y, Yabuuchi H, Takanaga H, Satoh E, Ogihara T, Amano O, Izeki S, Tsuji A: Immunohistochemical and functional characterization of pH-dependent intestinal absorption of weak organic acids by the monocarboxylic acid transporter MCT1. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1999 Oct;51(10):1113-21. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Substrate
General Function
Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Mediates sodium-independent multispecific organic anion transport. Transport of prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin F2, tetracycline, bumetanide, estrone sulfate, glutarate, dehydroepiandrosterone sulf...
Gene Name
SLC22A7
Uniprot ID
Q9Y694
Uniprot Name
Solute carrier family 22 member 7
Molecular Weight
60025.025 Da
References
  1. Kobayashi Y, Ohshiro N, Shibusawa A, Sasaki T, Tokuyama S, Sekine T, Endou H, Yamamoto T: Isolation, characterization and differential gene expression of multispecific organic anion transporter 2 in mice. Mol Pharmacol. 2002 Jul;62(1):7-14. [Article]
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Mediates the Na(+)-independent transport of organic anions such as taurocholate, the prostaglandins PGD2, PGE1, PGE2, leukotriene C4, thromboxane B2 and iloprost.
Gene Name
SLCO2B1
Uniprot ID
O94956
Uniprot Name
Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2B1
Molecular Weight
76709.98 Da
References
  1. Karlgren M, Vildhede A, Norinder U, Wisniewski JR, Kimoto E, Lai Y, Haglund U, Artursson P: Classification of inhibitors of hepatic organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs): influence of protein expression on drug-drug interactions. J Med Chem. 2012 May 24;55(10):4740-63. doi: 10.1021/jm300212s. Epub 2012 May 15. [Article]

Drug created at June 13, 2005 13:24 / Updated at February 20, 2024 23:55