Caspofungin

Identification

Summary

Caspofungin is an echinocandin used to treat a variety of fungal infections.

Brand Names

Cancidas

Generic Name

Caspofungin

DrugBank Accession Number

DB00520

Background

Caspofungin (brand name Cancidas worldwide) is an antifungal drug and the first member of a new drug class called the echinocandins, as coined by Merck & Co., Inc. It is typically administered intravenously. It shows activity against infections with Aspergillus and Candida, and works by inhibiting β(1,3)-D-Glucan of the fungal cell wall.

Type

Small Molecule

Groups

Approved

Structure

Similar Structures

Weight: Average: 1093.331
Monoisotopic: 1092.643062174
Chemical Formula: C₅₂H₈₈N₁₀O₁₅

Synonyms

(4R,5S)-5-((2-Aminoethyl)amino)-N(sup 2)-(10,12-dimethyltetradecanoyl)-4-hydroxy-L-ornithyl-L-threonyl-trans-4-hydroxy-L-prolyl-(S)-4-hydroxy-4-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-L-threonyl-threo-3-hydroxy-L-ornithyl-trans-3-hydroxy-L-proline cyclic (6-1)-peptide
Caspofungin
Caspofungina

External IDs

L 743,872
L 743872
MK 0991

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Pharmacology

Indication

For the treatment of esophageal candidiasis and invasive aspergillosis in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of other therapies.

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Associated Conditions

Indication Type	Indication	Approval Level	Patient Characteristics
Treatment of	Candidemia	••••••••••••
Treatment of	Esophageal candidiasis	••••••••••••
Treatment of	Fungal infections	••••••••••••
Treatment of	Invasive aspergillosis	••••••••••••	•••••••••• •• •• •••••••••• •• ••••• •••••••••
Treatment of	Oropharyngeal candidiasis	••• •••••

Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings

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Pharmacodynamics

Caspofungin is an antifungal drug, and belongs to a new class termed the echinocandins. It is used to treat Aspergillus and Candida infection, and works by inhibiting cell wall synthesis. Antifungals in the echinocandin class inhibit the synthesis of glucan in the cell wall, probably via the enzyme 1,3-beta glucan synthase. There is a potential for resistance development to occur, however in vitro resistance development to Caspofungin by Aspergillus species has not been studied.

Mechanism of action

Caspofungin inhibits the synthesis of beta-(1,3)-D-glucan, an essential component of the cell wall of Aspergillus species and Candida species. beta-(1,3)-D-glucan is not present in mammalian cells. The primary target is beta-(1,3)-glucan synthase.

Target	Actions	Organism
A1,3-beta-glucan synthase component FKS1	inhibitor	Aspergillus niger (strain CBS 513.88 / FGSC A1513)

Absorption

92% tissue distribution within 36-48 hours after intravenous infusion

Volume of distribution

Not Available

Protein binding

97%

Metabolism

Metabolized slowly by hydrolysis and N-acetylation

Route of elimination

After single intravenous administration of [3H] caspofungin acetate, excretion of caspofungin and its metabolites in humans was 35% of dose in feces and 41% of dose in urine.

Half-life

9-11 hours

Clearance

12 mL/min [After single IV administration]

Adverse Effects

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Toxicity

Side effects include rash, swelling, and nausea (rare)

Pathways

Not Available

Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs Browse all" title="About SNP Mediated Effects/ADRs" id="snp-actions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">

Not Available

Interactions

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This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.

Drug	Interaction
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Acenocoumarol	The therapeutic efficacy of Acenocoumarol can be increased when used in combination with Caspofungin.
Acetylcysteine	The excretion of Caspofungin can be decreased when combined with Acetylcysteine.
Acyclovir	The excretion of Acyclovir can be decreased when combined with Caspofungin.
Adefovir dipivoxil	The excretion of Adefovir dipivoxil can be decreased when combined with Caspofungin.
Ambrisentan	The excretion of Ambrisentan can be decreased when combined with Caspofungin.

Food Interactions

No interactions found.

Products

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Product Ingredients

Ingredient	UNII	CAS	InChI Key
Caspofungin acetate	VUW370O5QE	179463-17-3	OGUJBRYAAJYXQP-IJFZAWIJSA-N

Brand Name Prescription Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Cancidas	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	7 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Merck Sharp & Dohme Llc	2001-01-26	Not applicable
Cancidas	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	5 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Merck Sharp & Dohme Llc	2001-01-26	Not applicable
Cancidas	Powder, for solution	70 mg / vial	Intravenous	Merck Ltd.	2001-10-23	Not applicable
Cancidas	Injection, powder, for solution	50 mg	Intravenous	Merck Sharp & Dohme B.V.	2016-09-08	Not applicable
Cancidas	Powder, for solution	50 mg / vial	Intravenous	Merck Ltd.	2001-08-23	Not applicable

Generic Prescription Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Caspofungin Acetate	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	7 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Fosun Pharma USA Inc.	2019-04-02	Not applicable
Caspofungin Acetate	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	5 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Almaject, Inc.	2020-03-31	Not applicable
Caspofungin Acetate	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	5 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Fosun Pharma USA Inc.	2019-04-02	Not applicable
Caspofungin Acetate	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	7 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Alvogen Inc.	2017-12-01	2021-10-01
Caspofungin Acetate	Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	5 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Sandoz Inc	2018-09-04	Not applicable

Chemical Identifiers

UNII: F0XDI6ZL63
CAS number: 162808-62-0
InChI Key: JYIKNQVWKBUSNH-WVDDFWQHSA-N
InChI: InChI=1S/C52H88N10O15/c1-5-28(2)24-29(3)12-10-8-6-7-9-11-13-39(69)56-34-26-38(68)46(55-22-21-54)60-50(75)43-37(67)19-23-61(43)52(77)41(36(66)18-20-53)58-49(74)42(45(71)44(70)31-14-16-32(64)17-15-31)59-48(73)35-25-33(65)27-62(35)51(76)40(30(4)63)57-47(34)72/h14-17,28-30,33-38,40-46,55,63-68,70-71H,5-13,18-27,53-54H2,1-4H3,(H,56,69)(H,57,72)(H,58,74)(H,59,73)(H,60,75)/t28-,29+,30+,33+,34-,35-,36+,37-,38+,40-,41-,42-,43-,44-,45-,46-/m0/s1
IUPAC Name: (10R,12S)-N-[(3S,6S,9S,11R,15S,18S,20R,21S,24S,25S)-3-[(1R)-3-amino-1-hydroxypropyl]-21-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]-6-[(1S,2S)-1,2-dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-11,20,25-trihydroxy-15-[(1R)-1-hydroxyethyl]-2,5,8,14,17,23-hexaoxo-1,4,7,13,16,22-hexaazatricyclo[22.3.0.0^{9,13}]heptacosan-18-yl]-10,12-dimethyltetradecanamide
SMILES: [H][C@@]12C[C@@H](O)CN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@]([H])(C[C@@H](O)[C@@H](NCCN)NC(=O)[C@@H]1[C@@H](O)CCN1C(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC2=O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)C1=CC=C(O)C=C1)[C@H](O)CCN)NC(=O)CCCCCCCC[C@@H](C)C[C@@H](C)CC)[C@@H](C)O

References

Synthesis Reference

Johannes Ludescher, Ingolf Macher, Ole Storm, Stephan Bertel, "Process and Intermediates for the Synthesis of Caspofungin." U.S. Patent US20080319162, issued December 25, 2008.

US20080319162

General References

Sucher AJ, Chahine EB, Balcer HE: Echinocandins: the newest class of antifungals. Ann Pharmacother. 2009 Oct;43(10):1647-57. doi: 10.1345/aph.1M237. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
Morrison VA: Caspofungin: an overview. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2005 Oct;3(5):697-705. [Article]
McCormack PL, Perry CM: Caspofungin: a review of its use in the treatment of fungal infections. Drugs. 2005;65(14):2049-68. [Article]
Morris MI, Villmann M: Echinocandins in the management of invasive fungal infections, part 1. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2006 Sep 15;63(18):1693-703. [Article]
Morris MI, Villmann M: Echinocandins in the management of invasive fungal infections, Part 2. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2006 Oct 1;63(19):1813-20. [Article]

External Links

KEGG Drug: D07626
PubChem Compound: 3035406
PubChem Substance: 46508288
ChemSpider: 17277006
RxNav: 140108
ChEBI: 474180
ChEMBL: CHEMBL499808
Therapeutic Targets Database: DAP000547
PharmGKB: PA164743013
RxList: RxList Drug Page
Drugs.com: Drugs.com Drug Page
Wikipedia: Caspofungin

FDA label

Download (87.9 KB)

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials Learn More" title="About Clinical Trials" id="clinical-trials-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">

Phase	Status	Purpose	Conditions	Count
4	Completed	Not Available	Fungal Infections / Obesity	1
4	Completed	Other	Bacterial Infections and Mycoses / Liver Disease	1
4	Completed	Prevention	Invasive Candidiasis	1
4	Completed	Treatment	Candidemia	1
4	Completed	Treatment	Critically Ill Patients / Suspected Invasive Candidiasis	1

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers

Merck and co inc

Packagers

Cardinal Health
Merck & Co.
Oso Biopharmaceuticals Manufacturing LLC

Dosage Forms

Form	Route	Strength
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous
Solution	Intravenous	70.000 mg
Injection	Intravenous
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous; Parenteral	50 MG
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous; Parenteral	70 MG
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Not applicable	1 kg/1kg
Powder, for solution	Intravenous	50 mg / vial
Powder, for solution	Intravenous	50 MG
Powder, for solution	Intravenous	70 mg / vial
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	70 mg/vial
Injection, solution, concentrate	Intravenous	50 mg
Injection, solution, concentrate	Intravenous	70 mg
Injection, solution	Intravenous	50 mg
Injection, solution	Intravenous	70 mg
Injection	Intravenous	50 mg
Injection	Intravenous	70 mg
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	50.00 mg
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	70.00 mg
Injection	Intravenous	5 mg/1mL
Injection	Intravenous	7 mg/1mL
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	5 mg/1mL
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	7 mg/1mL
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	5 mg/1mL
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	50 mg/10.8mL
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	7 mg/1mL
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	70 mg/10.8mL
Injection, powder, for solution		50 MG
Injection, powder, for solution		70 MG
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous
Injection, powder, for solution	Parenteral	50 MG
Injection, powder, for solution	Parenteral	70 MG
Injection, powder, for solution
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	50 mg/vial
Solution	Intravenous	60.60 mg
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	55.49 mg
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	77.69 mg
Solution	Intravenous	50.00 mg
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	50 mg
Injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution	Intravenous	70 mg
Solution	Intravenous	50.000 mg
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	50 MG
Injection, powder, for solution	Intravenous	70 MG
Injection, powder, for solution	Parenteral
Powder		50 MG
Powder		70 mg
Solution	Intravenous	55.493 mg

Prices

Unit description	Cost	Unit
Cancidas iv 70 mg vial	421.06USD	vial
Cancidas iv 50 mg vial	405.25USD	vial

DrugBank does not sell nor buy drugs. Pricing information is supplied for informational purposes only.

Patents

Patent Number	Pediatric Extension	Approved	Expires (estimated)
US5378804	No	1995-01-03	2013-03-16
CA2251928	No	2003-06-17	2017-04-15
CA2118757	No	2002-05-14	2014-03-10
US6136783	Yes	2000-10-24	2017-09-28
US5952300	Yes	1999-09-14	2017-09-28
US5514650	Yes	1996-05-07	2015-07-26
US9636407	No	2017-05-02	2032-12-21

Properties

State

Solid

Experimental Properties

Property	Value	Source
logP	0	Not Available

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	0.367 mg/mL	ALOGPS
logP	0.17	ALOGPS
logP	-4.8	Chemaxon
logS	-3.5	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	8.75	Chemaxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)	9.76	Chemaxon
Physiological Charge	2	Chemaxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	18	Chemaxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	16	Chemaxon
Polar Surface Area	412.03 Å²	Chemaxon
Rotatable Bond Count	23	Chemaxon
Refractivity	278.78 m³·mol^-1	Chemaxon
Polarizability	117.66 Å³	Chemaxon
Number of Rings	4	Chemaxon
Bioavailability	0	Chemaxon
Rule of Five	No	Chemaxon
Ghose Filter	No	Chemaxon
Veber's Rule	No	Chemaxon
MDDR-like Rule	Yes	Chemaxon

Predicted ADMET Features

Property	Value	Probability
Human Intestinal Absorption	+	0.7566
Blood Brain Barrier	-	0.96
Caco-2 permeable	-	0.8091
P-glycoprotein substrate	Substrate	0.8694
P-glycoprotein inhibitor I	Non-inhibitor	0.9653
P-glycoprotein inhibitor II	Non-inhibitor	0.9174
Renal organic cation transporter	Non-inhibitor	0.9379
CYP450 2C9 substrate	Non-substrate	0.831
CYP450 2D6 substrate	Non-substrate	0.8166
CYP450 3A4 substrate	Non-substrate	0.51
CYP450 1A2 substrate	Non-inhibitor	0.9389
CYP450 2C9 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.9161
CYP450 2D6 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.8904
CYP450 2C19 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.875
CYP450 3A4 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.9682
CYP450 inhibitory promiscuity	Low CYP Inhibitory Promiscuity	0.9781
Ames test	Non AMES toxic	0.7398
Carcinogenicity	Non-carcinogens	0.8315
Biodegradation	Not ready biodegradable	0.9683
Rat acute toxicity	2.9344 LD50, mol/kg	Not applicable
hERG inhibition (predictor I)	Weak inhibitor	0.9637
hERG inhibition (predictor II)	Non-inhibitor	0.716

ADMET data is predicted using admetSAR, a free tool for evaluating chemical ADMET properties. (23092397)

Spectra

Mass Spec (NIST)

Not Available

Spectra

Spectrum	Spectrum Type	Splash Key
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-05bf-9000000010-a5de0e3356b3fbaaec81
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-0fdo-9000000010-d6126a189c6a7f4dfe35
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-0udi-7000000139-f28d4c97af84ab1441e6
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-0006-9010000013-1439628cddc3bfff659a
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-052f-9200000004-ea281c6d27c321c580a9
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	splash10-002f-9400000062-46c0bf2933d0017a1ffe

Chromatographic Properties

Collision Cross Sections (CCS)

Not Available

Targets

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Details1. 1,3-beta-glucan synthase component FKS1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Aspergillus niger (strain CBS 513.88 / FGSC A1513)
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: 1,3-beta-d-glucan synthase activity
Specific Function: Catalytic subunit of the 1,3-beta-glucan synthase. Synthesizes 1,3-beta-glucan, a major structural component of the cell wall. Involved in cell wall synthesis, maintenance and cell wall remodeling ...
Gene Name: fksA
Uniprot ID: A2QLK4
Uniprot Name: 1,3-beta-glucan synthase component FKS1
Molecular Weight: 216972.8 Da

References

Sucher AJ, Chahine EB, Balcer HE: Echinocandins: the newest class of antifungals. Ann Pharmacother. 2009 Oct;43(10):1647-57. doi: 10.1345/aph.1M237. Epub 2009 Sep 1. [Article]
Morrison VA: Caspofungin: an overview. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2005 Oct;3(5):697-705. [Article]
McCormack PL, Perry CM: Caspofungin: a review of its use in the treatment of fungal infections. Drugs. 2005;65(14):2049-68. [Article]
Morris MI, Villmann M: Echinocandins in the management of invasive fungal infections, part 1. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2006 Sep 15;63(18):1693-703. [Article]
Morris MI, Villmann M: Echinocandins in the management of invasive fungal infections, Part 2. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2006 Oct 1;63(19):1813-20. [Article]

Enzymes

Details1. Cytochrome P450 3A4

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Inhibitor
Curator comments: There is conflicting evidence in the literature regarding this enzyme action. The EMA label does not consider Caspofungin a CYP3A4 inhibitor, however another resource considers it an inhibitor.

General Function: Vitamin d3 25-hydroxylase activity
Specific Function: Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It performs a variety of oxidation react...
Gene Name: CYP3A4
Uniprot ID: P08684
Uniprot Name: Cytochrome P450 3A4
Molecular Weight: 57342.67 Da

References

Colburn DE, Giles FJ, Oladovich D, Smith JA: In vitro evaluation of cytochrome P450-mediated drug interactions between cytarabine, idarubicin, itraconazole and caspofungin. Hematology. 2004 Jun;9(3):217-21. doi: 10.1080/10245330410001701585. [Article]
Caspofungin EMA label [Link]

Transporters

Details1. Solute carrier family 22 member 1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown

General Function: Secondary active organic cation transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Translocates a broad array of organic cations with various structures and molecular weights including the model compounds 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP), tetraethylammonium (TEA), N-1-methylnico...
Gene Name: SLC22A1
Uniprot ID: O15245
Uniprot Name: Solute carrier family 22 member 1
Molecular Weight: 61153.345 Da

Details2. P-glycoprotein 1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Xenobiotic-transporting atpase activity
Specific Function: Energy-dependent efflux pump responsible for decreased drug accumulation in multidrug-resistant cells.
Gene Name: ABCB1
Uniprot ID: P08183
Uniprot Name: Multidrug resistance protein 1
Molecular Weight: 141477.255 Da

References

Sandhu P, Lee W, Xu X, Leake BF, Yamazaki M, Stone JA, Lin JH, Pearson PG, Kim RB: Hepatic uptake of the novel antifungal agent caspofungin. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005 May;33(5):676-82. Epub 2005 Feb 16. [Article]
Lempers VJ, van den Heuvel JJ, Russel FG, Aarnoutse RE, Burger DM, Bruggemann RJ, Koenderink JB: Inhibitory Potential of Antifungal Drugs on ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters P-Glycoprotein, MRP1 to MRP5, BCRP, and BSEP. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016 May 23;60(6):3372-9. doi: 10.1128/AAC.02931-15. Print 2016 Jun. [Article]

Details3. Solute carrier family 22 member 6

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Involved in the renal elimination of endogenous and exogenous organic anions. Functions as organic anion exchanger when the uptake of one molecule of organic anion is coupled with an efflux of one ...
Gene Name: SLC22A6
Uniprot ID: Q4U2R8
Uniprot Name: Solute carrier family 22 member 6
Molecular Weight: 61815.78 Da

References

Sandhu P, Lee W, Xu X, Leake BF, Yamazaki M, Stone JA, Lin JH, Pearson PG, Kim RB: Hepatic uptake of the novel antifungal agent caspofungin. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005 May;33(5):676-82. Epub 2005 Feb 16. [Article]

Details4. Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Mediates the Na(+)-independent uptake of organic anions such as pravastatin, taurocholate, methotrexate, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, 17-beta-glucuronosyl estradiol, estrone sulfate, prostagland...
Gene Name: SLCO1B1
Uniprot ID: Q9Y6L6
Uniprot Name: Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1
Molecular Weight: 76447.99 Da

References

Sandhu P, Lee W, Xu X, Leake BF, Yamazaki M, Stone JA, Lin JH, Pearson PG, Kim RB: Hepatic uptake of the novel antifungal agent caspofungin. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005 May;33(5):676-82. Epub 2005 Feb 16. [Article]

Details5. Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B3

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Substrate

General Function: Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Mediates the Na(+)-independent uptake of organic anions such as 17-beta-glucuronosyl estradiol, taurocholate, triiodothyronine (T3), leukotriene C4, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), methotre...
Gene Name: SLCO1B3
Uniprot ID: Q9NPD5
Uniprot Name: Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B3
Molecular Weight: 77402.175 Da

References

Sandhu P, Lee W, Xu X, Leake BF, Yamazaki M, Stone JA, Lin JH, Pearson PG, Kim RB: Hepatic uptake of the novel antifungal agent caspofungin. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005 May;33(5):676-82. Epub 2005 Feb 16. [Article]

Drug created at June 13, 2005 13:24 / Updated at February 20, 2024 23:54

Caspofungin

Identification

Structure for Caspofungin (DB00520)

Pharmacology

Interactions

Products

Categories

Chemical Identifiers

References

Clinical Trials

Pharmacoeconomics

Properties

Spectra

Collision Cross Sections (CCS)

Targets

References

Enzymes

References

Transporters

References

References

References

References