Identification
- Summary
Ephedra is an alpha and beta-adrenergic agonist used for the management of respiratory conditions related to bronchial asthma, such as wheezing, shortness of breath, and tightness of chest.
- Generic Name
- Ephedra sinica root
Commonly known or available as Ephedra - DrugBank Accession Number
- DB01363
- Background
Ephedra is an alkaloid chemical compound traditionally obtained from the plant Ephedra sinica. The sale of ephedra-containing supplements intended to increase muscle weight or promote weight loss was banned in the United States in 2004 due to the risk for adverse effects and a lack of evidence for clinical effectiveness. The drug is still sold in Canada in OTC formulations for respiratory conditions associated with bronchial asthma.
- Type
- Biotech
- Groups
- Nutraceutical
- Synonyms
- Cao ma huang root
- Chinese ephedra root (ephedra sinica)
- Chinese jointfir
- Ephedra
- Ephedra ma-huang root
- Ephedra root (ephedra sinica)
- Ephedra sinica root
- Ephedrae radix
- Hemp yellow root
- Ma huang gen (ephedra sinica)
- Mahuanggen (ephedra sinica)
Pharmacology
- Indication
Ephedra is indicated for the temporary relief of shortness of breath, tightness of chest, and wheezing due to bronchial asthma. For the temporary relief of bronchial asthma in over-the-counter formulations.
Reduce drug development failure ratesBuild, train, & validate machine-learning modelswith evidence-based and structured datasets.Build, train, & validate predictive machine-learning models with structured datasets.- Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings
Prevent Adverse Drug Events TodayTap into our Clinical API for life-saving information on contraindications & blackbox warnings, population restrictions, harmful risks, & more.Avoid life-threatening adverse drug events with our Clinical API- Pharmacodynamics
Not Available
- Mechanism of action
The alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are the active constituents of Ephedra. Pseudoephedrine is used in over-the-counter decongestants. Derivatives of ephedrine are used to treat low blood pressure, but alternatives with reduced cardiovascular risk have replaced it for treating asthma. Ephedrine is also considered a performance-enhancing drug and is prohibited in most competitive sports. Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine - that is, its principal mechanism of action relies on its direct and indirect actions on the adrenergic receptor system, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. Ephedrine increases post-synaptic noradrenergic receptor activity by (weakly) directly activating post-synaptic α-receptors and β-receptors, but the bulk of its effect comes from the pre-synaptic neuron being unable to distinguish between real adrenaline or noradrenaline from ephedrine. The ephedrine, mixed with noradrenaline, is transported through the noradrenaline reuptake complex and packaged (along with real noradrenaline) into vesicles that reside at the terminal button of a nerve cell. Ephedrine's action as an agonist at most major noradrenaline receptors and its ability to increase the release of both dopamine and to a lesser extent, serotonin by the same mechanism is presumed to have a major role in its mechanism of action.
Target Actions Organism ASodium-dependent dopamine transporter negative modulatorHumans ASodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter negative modulatorHumans AAlpha-2A adrenergic receptor agonistHumans AAlpha-2B adrenergic receptor agonistHumans AAlpha-2C adrenergic receptor agonistHumans AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] A inhibitorHumans AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] B inhibitorHumans ABeta-1 adrenergic receptor agonistHumans ABeta-2 adrenergic receptor agonistHumans ABeta-3 adrenergic receptor agonistHumans ASodium-dependent serotonin transporter negative modulatorHumans ASynaptic vesicular amine transporter inhibitorHumans AChromaffin granule amine transporter inhibitorHumans - Absorption
Not Available
- Volume of distribution
Not Available
- Protein binding
Not Available
- Metabolism
- Not Available
- Route of elimination
Not Available
- Half-life
Not Available
- Clearance
Not Available
- Adverse Effects
Improve decision support & research outcomesWith structured adverse effects data, including: blackbox warnings, adverse reactions, warning & precautions, & incidence rates. View sample adverse effects data in our new Data Library!Improve decision support & research outcomes with our structured adverse effects data.- Toxicity
Not Available
- Pathways
- Not Available
- Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs Browse all" title="About SNP Mediated Effects/ADRs" id="snp-actions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
- Not Available
Interactions
- Drug Interactions Learn More" title="About Drug Interactions" id="structured-interactions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
- This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.
Drug Interaction Integrate drug-drug
interactions in your softwareAcarbose The therapeutic efficacy of Acarbose can be decreased when used in combination with Ephedra sinica root. Acebutolol The therapeutic efficacy of Ephedra sinica root can be decreased when used in combination with Acebutolol. Aceclofenac The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with Aceclofenac. Acemetacin The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with Acemetacin. Acetohexamide The therapeutic efficacy of Acetohexamide can be decreased when used in combination with Ephedra sinica root. - Food Interactions
- Not Available
Products
Drug product information from 10+ global regionsOur datasets provide approved product information including:dosage, form, labeller, route of administration, and marketing period.Access drug product information from over 10 global regions.- International/Other Brands
- Sinueaze
- Over the Counter Products
Name Dosage Strength Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image Citrivate Capsule 84 mg Oral Great Canadian Lifestyles Co. 2001-07-13 2002-09-03 Canada 
Decongestionnant - Cap Orl Capsule 250 mg / cap Oral Laboratoire Lalco Inc. 1997-01-20 2002-09-05 Canada Dp Formula Tablet 107 mg Oral Pep Products Inc. 2000-03-01 2003-01-13 Canada Dp Formula - 133mg Tab Tablet 133 mg Oral Pep Products Inc. 1994-12-31 2003-01-13 Canada Ephedra Capsule 300 mg / cap Oral Kaizen Inc. 1997-04-22 1999-03-15 Canada - Mixture Products
Name Ingredients Dosage Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image Dr. Miller's Formula No. 1 Ephedra sinica root (280 mg / tab) + Willow bark (280 mg / tab) Tablet Oral Lite & Rite Inc. 1994-12-31 1998-06-09 Canada Herbal Cold and Flu Formula - Tab Ephedra sinica root (8 mg / tab) + Salix alba bark (3 g / tab) Tablet Oral Quest Vitamins A Div Of Purity Life Health Products 1995-12-31 1999-08-08 Canada
Categories
- Drug Categories
- Adrenergic Agonists
- Adrenergic alpha-2 Receptor Agonists
- Adrenergic alpha-Agonists
- Adrenergic beta-2 Receptor Agonists
- Adrenergic beta-Agonists
- Agents producing tachycardia
- Agents that produce hypertension
- Alpha-and Beta-adrenergic Agonists
- Biological Products
- Complex Mixtures
- Cycadopsida
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal
- Embryophyta
- Ephedra
- Eukaryota
- Gnetophyta
- Herbs and Natural Products
- Hyperglycemia-Associated Agents
- Monoamine Oxidase A Inhibitors for interaction with Monoamine Oxidase A substrates
- Pharmaceutical Preparations
- Plant Extracts
- Plant Preparations
- Streptophyta
- Sympathomimetic (Adrenergic) Agents
- Viridiplantae
- Classification
- Not classified
- Affected organisms
- Humans and other mammals
Chemical Identifiers
- UNII
- D0P20CT40D
- CAS number
- Not Available
References
- General References
- Gurley BJ, Wang P, Gardner SF: Ephedrine-type alkaloid content of nutritional supplements containing Ephedra sinica (Ma-huang) as determined by high performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Sci. 1998 Dec;87(12):1547-53. [Article]
- Abourashed EA, El-Alfy AT, Khan IA, Walker L: Ephedra in perspective--a current review. Phytother Res. 2003 Aug;17(7):703-12. [Article]
- Haller CA, Benowitz NL: Adverse cardiovascular and central nervous system events associated with dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 21;343(25):1833-8. [Article]
- Bent S, Tiedt TN, Odden MC, Shlipak MG: The relative safety of ephedra compared with other herbal products. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Mar 18;138(6):468-71. [Article]
- External Links
- PubChem Substance
- 46504840
- 1724424
- PharmGKB
- PA164777031
- Drugs.com
- Drugs.com Drug Page
- PDRhealth
- PDRhealth Drug Page
- Wikipedia
- Ephedra
Clinical Trials
- Clinical Trials Learn More" title="About Clinical Trials" id="clinical-trials-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
Phase Status Purpose Conditions Count 2 Completed Prevention Cesarean Sections / Nausea / Vomiting 1
Pharmacoeconomics
- Manufacturers
- Not Available
- Packagers
- Not Available
- Dosage Forms
Form Route Strength Capsule Oral 84 mg Tablet Oral 107 mg Tablet Oral 133 mg Capsule Oral 300 mg / cap Tablet Oral 100 mg Tablet Oral 8 mg Capsule Oral 250 mg / cap Capsule Oral 133.4 mg Capsule Oral 8 mg Capsule Oral 10 mg / cap Tablet Oral 8 mg / tab Tablet Oral Tablet Oral 8 mg / 3 tab Capsule Oral 4 mg / cap Capsule Oral 100 mg / cap Capsule Oral 680 mg / cap Capsule Oral 100 mg Capsule Oral 125 mg / cap Tablet Oral 133 mg / tab Capsule Oral 167.5 mg Capsule Oral 7.5 mg / cap Capsule Oral 10.8 mg / cap - Prices
- Not Available
- Patents
- Not Available
Properties
- State
- Solid
- Experimental Properties
- Not Available
Targets
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- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Negative modulator
- General Function
- Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
- Specific Function
- Amine transporter. Terminates the action of dopamine by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
- Gene Name
- SLC6A3
- Uniprot ID
- Q01959
- Uniprot Name
- Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 68494.255 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [Article]
- Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [Article]
- Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [Article]
- Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Negative modulator
- General Function
- Norepinephrine:sodium symporter activity
- Specific Function
- Amine transporter. Terminates the action of noradrenaline by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
- Gene Name
- SLC6A2
- Uniprot ID
- P23975
- Uniprot Name
- Sodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 69331.42 Da
References
- Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [Article]
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [Article]
- Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [Article]
- Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Thioesterase binding
- Specific Function
- Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is oxymetazo...
- Gene Name
- ADRA2A
- Uniprot ID
- P08913
- Uniprot Name
- Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 48956.275 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [Article]
- Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Epinephrine binding
- Specific Function
- Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is clonidine...
- Gene Name
- ADRA2B
- Uniprot ID
- P18089
- Uniprot Name
- Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 49565.8 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [Article]
- Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Protein homodimerization activity
- Specific Function
- Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins.
- Gene Name
- ADRA2C
- Uniprot ID
- P18825
- Uniprot Name
- Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 49521.585 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [Article]
- Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Serotonin binding
- Specific Function
- Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
- Gene Name
- MAOA
- Uniprot ID
- P21397
- Uniprot Name
- Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] A
- Molecular Weight
- 59681.27 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Primary amine oxidase activity
- Specific Function
- Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
- Gene Name
- MAOB
- Uniprot ID
- P27338
- Uniprot Name
- Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] B
- Molecular Weight
- 58762.475 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Receptor signaling protein activity
- Specific Function
- Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. This receptor binds epinephrine and norepinephrine with approximately e...
- Gene Name
- ADRB1
- Uniprot ID
- P08588
- Uniprot Name
- Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 51322.1 Da
References
- Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Protein homodimerization activity
- Specific Function
- Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The beta-2-adrenergic receptor binds epinephrine with an approximately ...
- Gene Name
- ADRB2
- Uniprot ID
- P07550
- Uniprot Name
- Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 46458.32 Da
References
- Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Agonist
- General Function
- Protein homodimerization activity
- Specific Function
- Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. Beta-3 is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and thermogenesis.
- Gene Name
- ADRB3
- Uniprot ID
- P13945
- Uniprot Name
- Beta-3 adrenergic receptor
- Molecular Weight
- 43518.615 Da
References
- Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Negative modulator
- General Function
- Serotonin:sodium symporter activity
- Specific Function
- Serotonin transporter whose primary function in the central nervous system involves the regulation of serotonergic signaling via transport of serotonin molecules from the synaptic cleft back into t...
- Gene Name
- SLC6A4
- Uniprot ID
- P31645
- Uniprot Name
- Sodium-dependent serotonin transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 70324.165 Da
References
- Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [Article]
- Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
- Specific Function
- Involved in the ATP-dependent vesicular transport of biogenic amine neurotransmitters. Pumps cytosolic monoamines including dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine into synaptic vesicles...
- Gene Name
- SLC18A2
- Uniprot ID
- Q05940
- Uniprot Name
- Synaptic vesicular amine transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 55712.075 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [Article]
- Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Serotonin transmembrane transporter activity
- Specific Function
- Involved in the transport of biogenic monoamines, such as serotonin, from the cytoplasm into the secretory vesicles of neuroendocrine and endocrine cells.
- Gene Name
- SLC18A1
- Uniprot ID
- P54219
- Uniprot Name
- Chromaffin granule amine transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 56256.71 Da
References
- Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [Article]
- Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [Article]
- Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [Article]
Drug created at July 06, 2007 19:55 / Updated at February 20, 2024 23:54