Identification
- Summary
Betaine is a methyl group donor used for the treatment of homocystinuria to decrease elevated homocysteine blood levels.
- Brand Names
- Amversio, Cystadane, EnBrace HR, EnLyte
- Generic Name
- Betaine
- DrugBank Accession Number
- DB06756
- Background
Betaine is a methyl group donor that functions in the normal metabolic cycle of methionine. It is a naturally occurring choline derivative commonly ingested through diet, with a role in regulating cellular hydration and maintaining cell function.3,4 Homocystinuria is an inherited disorder that leads to the accumulation of homocysteine in plasma and urine. Currently, no treatments are available to correct the genetic causes of homocystinuria. However, in order to normalize homocysteine levels, patients can be treated with vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B12 (cobalamin), folate and specific diets.7 Betaine reduces plasma homocysteine levels in patients with homocystinuria.5 Although it is present in many food products, the levels found there are insufficient to treat this condition. The FDA and EMA have approved the product Cystadane (betaine anhydrous, oral solution) for the treatment of homocystinuria,5,7 and the EMA has approved the use of Amversio (betaine anhydrous, oral powder).6
- Type
- Small Molecule
- Groups
- Approved, Investigational, Nutraceutical
- Structure
Structure for Betaine (DB06756)
- Weight
- Average: 117.1463
Monoisotopic: 117.078978601 - Chemical Formula
- C5H11NO2
- Synonyms
- 2-(Trimethylammonio)Acetate
- 2-N,N,N-trimethylammonio acetate
- 2-trimethylammonioacetate
- Abromine
- Acidol
- Betaína anhidra
- Betaine
- Betaine, anhydrous
- Glycine betaine
- Glycinebetaine
- Glykokollbetain
- N,N,N-trimethylammonioacetate
- N,N,N-Trimethylglycine
- TMG
- Trimethylaminoacetate
- Trimethylammonioacetate
- Trimethylglycine
- Trimethylglycocoll
- External IDs
- FEMA NO. 4223
- NSC-166511
Pharmacology
- Indication
Betaine is indicated for the treatment of homocystinuria in pediatric and adult patients to decrease elevated homocysteine blood levels.5 Included within the category of homocystinuria are deficiencies or defects in cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), and cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl).5
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Indication Type Indication Combined Product Details Approval Level Age Group Patient Characteristics Dose Form Management of Homocystinuria •••••••••••• •••••••• Adjunct therapy in management of Homocystinuria due to cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency •••••••••••• •••••• Adjunct therapy in management of Homocystinuria due to mthfr deficiency •••••••••••• •••••• Adjunct therapy in management of Homocystinuria due to cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl) defect •••••••••••• •••••• - Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings
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Betaine decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations in homocystinuria cases caused by deficiencies or defects in cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), and cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl).5 The decrease of homocysteine is estimated to be 20-30% of pre-treatment levels. Betaine supplementation in patients with homocystinuria also improves metabolic abnormalities in cerebrospinal fluid.6 Reports have shown that depending on the type of homocystinuria, the therapeutic effectiveness of betaine alone may be limited, insufficient to decrease total homocysteine levels and prevent clinical symptoms. In patients with homocystinuria due to cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) deficiency, betaine should be used when serum total homocysteine levels remain high despite dietary therapy.1
Patients taking betaine for several years do not show evidence of tolerance. Also, betaine concentrations are not correlated with homocysteine concentrations.5 In patients with MTHFR deficiency and cbl defects, betaine may increase methionine and S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) plasma levels. Patients with CBS deficiency without a dietary restriction of methionine may accumulate excessive amounts of methionine. Clinical data shows that in patients with CBS deficiency, increased plasma methionine levels were associated with cerebral edema.5,6
- Mechanism of action
Homocystinuria is a hereditary disorder characterized by high levels of the amino acid homocysteine. This condition can be caused by deficiencies or defects in cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), and cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl).5 CBS converts homocysteine to cystathionine, and a deficiency in this enzyme can lead to an accumulation of homocysteine. MTHFR is responsible for producing 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, a methyl donor that participates in the conversion of homocysteine back to methionine; therefore, an MTHFR deficiency can also lead to homocystinuria.4 Additionally, a defect in cobalamin (vitamin B12) cofactor metabolism can lead to homocystinuria, since a metabolite of cobalamin (methylcobalamin) promotes the conversion of homocysteine to methionine.3
Betaine transfers a methyl group via the enzyme betaine homocysteine methyl transferase (BHMT), converting homocysteine back into methionine and dimethylglycine (DMG).4,6 In patients with homocystinuria, betaine reduces homocysteine levels and improves health outcomes.3
Target Actions Organism ABetaine--homocysteine S-methyltransferase 1 substrateHumans - Absorption
Betaine is rapidly absorbed and distributed. In healthy volunteers (n=12) given 50 mg/kg of betaine, the Cmax, tmax and AUC0,∞ were 0.939 mmol/L, 0.90 h and 5.52 mmol⋅h/L, respectively.2 No significant changes in absorption kinetics were observed after repeated betaine administration (100 mg/kg/day for 5 days). The absolute bioavailability of betaine anhydrous has not been determined.6
- Volume of distribution
Based on a study done on healthy volunteers (n=12) given 50 mg/kg of betaine, the volume of distribution was 1.3 L/kg.2
- Protein binding
Not Available
- Metabolism
Betaine is catabolized mainly in the mitochondria of liver and kidney cells. The transmethylation of betaine via betaine homocysteine methyl transferase (BHMT) leads to the formation of dimethylglycine.3
Hover over products below to view reaction partners
- Route of elimination
Betaine is mainly eliminated by metabolism.2 With a slow elimination rate and assuming 100% bioavailability, the renal clearance of betaine is negligible (5% of total body clearance).6
- Half-life
In healthy volunteers (n=12) given 50 mg/kg of betaine, the elimination half-life was 14.38 h.2 In volunteers given 100 mg/kg/day of betaine for 5 days, the distribution half-life was significantly longer, suggesting that the transport and redistribution processes of betaine were saturated.6
- Clearance
Based on a study done on healthy volunteers (n=12) given 50 mg/kg of betaine, total oral plasma drug clearance was 0.084 L/h⋅kg.2
- Adverse Effects
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Toxicity information regarding betaine is not readily available. Patients experiencing an overdose are at an increased risk of severe adverse effects such as cerebral edema in patients with cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) deficiency.5 Symptomatic and supportive measures are recommended. In an acute toxicology study in rats, death frequently occurred at doses equal to or greater than 10,000 mg/kg.5 The effects of betaine on long-term carcinogenicity and fertility have not been evaluated. The following tests have not shown evidence of betaine genotoxicity: metaphase analysis of human lymphocytes, bacterial reverse mutation assay, and mouse micronucleus test.5
- Pathways
- Not Available
- Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs Browse all" title="About SNP Mediated Effects/ADRs" id="snp-actions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
- Not Available
Interactions
- Drug Interactions Learn More" title="About Drug Interactions" id="structured-interactions-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
- This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.
Drug Interaction Integrate drug-drug
interactions in your softwareAcebutolol Betaine may increase the bradycardic activities of Acebutolol. Acetylcholine The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Betaine is combined with Acetylcholine. Aclidinium Betaine may increase the neuromuscular blocking activities of Aclidinium. Amantadine The therapeutic efficacy of Amantadine can be decreased when used in combination with Betaine. Amifampridine The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Betaine is combined with Amifampridine. - Food Interactions
- Take with or without food. Oral betaine powder should be mixed with food or a beverage and then consumed.
Products
Drug product information from 10+ global regionsOur datasets provide approved product information including:dosage, form, labeller, route of administration, and marketing period.Access drug product information from over 10 global regions.- Product Ingredients
Ingredient UNII CAS InChI Key Betaine citrate 19JX795NXV 17671-50-0 YKXUOESQDCXGIW-UHFFFAOYSA-M Betaine hydrochloride JK8U8K4D6K 590-46-5 HOPSCVCBEOCPJZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N - International/Other Brands
- Amversio (SERB SA) / Cystadane (Recordati Rare Diseases Inc.)
- Brand Name Prescription Products
Name Dosage Strength Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image Amversio Powder 1 g Oral Serb Sa 2022-08-02 Not applicable EU 
Cystadane Powder, for solution 1 g/1g Oral Recordati Rare Diseases 1996-10-25 Not applicable US 
Cystadane Powder, for solution 6 g/1 Oral Rare Disease Therapeutics, Inc. 1996-10-25 Not applicable US Cystadane Powder 1 g Oral Recordati Rare Diseases 2016-09-08 Not applicable EU Cystadane Powder, for solution 1 g/1g Oral Orphan Europe Sarl 2018-01-08 Not applicable US - Generic Prescription Products
Name Dosage Strength Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image Betaine Powder, for solution 1 g/1g Oral Cosette Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 2022-11-04 Not applicable US Betaine Anhydrous Powder, for solution 1 g/1g Oral Eton Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 2023-02-01 Not applicable US Betaine Anhydrous For solution 1 g/1g Oral Novitium Pharma Llc 2021-11-23 Not applicable US Betaine Anhydrous For Oral Solution Powder, for solution 1 g/1g Oral Lukare Medical, Llc 2022-02-11 Not applicable US Betaine Anhydrous for Oral Solution For solution 1 g/1g Oral OAKRUM PHARMA, LLC 2022-02-03 2024-04-30 US - Over the Counter Products
Name Dosage Strength Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image ATONO2 Oxygen Baby Lotion 0.2 g/100g Topical Laorganic Co., Ltd. 2015-09-01 Not applicable US Betaine HCl Tab 500mg Tablet 500 mg / tab Oral Gahler Enterprises Ltd. 1991-12-31 2001-01-04 Canada 
Dr.g Pore Purifing Toner Liquid 0.5 g/100mL Topical GOWOONSESANG COSMETICS CO., LTD. 2015-07-05 2018-01-09 US Dr.Jucre Rebirth Activating Toner Liquid 0.001 g/100mL Topical NATURECELL CO., LTD. 2022-10-01 Not applicable US ENZYME DIGEST TABLET Tablet Oral Eucogen Pharma Sdn. Bhd. 2020-09-08 Not applicable Malaysia 
- Mixture Products
Name Ingredients Dosage Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image Acididyn Tab Betaine hydrochloride (178.2 mg) + Ammonium chloride (32.4 mg) Tablet Oral Nutri Dyn Products Ltd. 1975-12-31 1997-08-22 Canada Alka-pan Tablets Betaine hydrochloride (20 mg) + Bromelains (50 mg) + Ox bile extract (35 mg) + Pancrelipase (135 mg) + Papaya (125 mg) Tablet Oral Morter Healthsystem Not applicable Not applicable Canada Bemosin Tab Betaine hydrochloride (130 mg) + Ammonium chloride (97.2 mg) + Pepsin (130 mg) Tablet Oral Therapeutic Foods Co. 1988-12-31 2003-07-16 Canada Betacol Betaine hydrochloride (61 mg) + Calcium glycerophosphate (50 mg) + Choline bitartrate (2.5 mg) + Potassium bicarbonate (41 mg) Capsule Oral Therapeutic Foods Co. 1989-12-15 1996-09-09 Canada Betaine HCl and Pepsin Betaine hydrochloride (324 mg) + Pepsin (135 mg) Tablet Oral Rheingold Food International Ltd. 1985-12-31 2007-07-26 Canada - Unapproved/Other Products
Name Ingredients Dosage Route Labeller Marketing Start Marketing End Region Image ATONO2 Oxygen Baby Betaine (0.2 g/100g) Lotion Topical Laorganic Co., Ltd. 2015-09-01 Not applicable US Cystadane Betaine (1 g/1g) Powder, for solution Oral Orphan Europe Sarl 2018-01-08 Not applicable US Dr.g Pore Purifing Toner Betaine (0.5 g/100mL) Liquid Topical GOWOONSESANG COSMETICS CO., LTD. 2015-07-05 2018-01-09 US Dr.Jucre Rebirth Activating Toner Betaine (0.001 g/100mL) Liquid Topical NATURECELL CO., LTD. 2022-10-01 Not applicable US EnBrace HR Betaine (500 ug/1) + 1,2-docosahexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine calcium (6.4 mg/1) + 1,2-icosapentoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine calcium (800 ug/1) + Cobamamide (50 ug/1) + Cocarboxylase (25 ug/1) + Ferrous cysteine glycinate (13.6 mg/1) + Flavin adenine dinucleotide (25 ug/1) + Folic acid (1 mg/1) + Magnesium L-threonate (1 mg/1) + Leucovorin (2.5 mg/1) + Levomefolate magnesium (5.23 mg/1) + Magnesium ascorbate (24 mg/1) + NADH (25 ug/1) + Phosphatidyl serine (12 mg/1) + Pyridoxal phosphate (25 ug/1) + Zinc ascorbate (1 mg/1) Capsule, delayed release pellets Oral Jaymac Pharma 2011-08-12 Not applicable US
Categories
- ATC Codes
- A16AA06 — Betaine
- A16AA — Amino acids and derivatives
- A16A — OTHER ALIMENTARY TRACT AND METABOLISM PRODUCTS
- A16 — OTHER ALIMENTARY TRACT AND METABOLISM PRODUCTS
- A — ALIMENTARY TRACT AND METABOLISM
- Drug Categories
- Acid Preparations
- Alimentary Tract and Metabolism
- Amines
- Amino Acids and Derivatives
- Cholinesterase Inhibitors
- Digestives, Incl. Enzymes
- Gastrointestinal Agents
- Lipid Regulating Agents
- Lipotropic Agents
- Methylating Activity
- Methylating Agent
- Onium Compounds
- Other Miscellaneous Therapeutic Agents
- Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
- Trimethyl Ammonium Compounds
- Chemical TaxonomyProvided by Classyfire
- Description
- This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon).
- Kingdom
- Organic compounds
- Super Class
- Organic acids and derivatives
- Class
- Carboxylic acids and derivatives
- Sub Class
- Amino acids, peptides, and analogues
- Direct Parent
- Alpha amino acids
- Alternative Parents
- Tetraalkylammonium salts / Carboxylic acid salts / Monocarboxylic acids and derivatives / Carboxylic acids / Organopnictogen compounds / Organic salts / Organic oxides / Hydrocarbon derivatives / Carbonyl compounds / Amines
- Substituents
- Aliphatic acyclic compound / Alpha-amino acid / Amine / Carbonyl group / Carboxylic acid / Carboxylic acid salt / Hydrocarbon derivative / Monocarboxylic acid or derivatives / Organic nitrogen compound / Organic oxide
- Molecular Framework
- Aliphatic acyclic compounds
- External Descriptors
- glycine derivative, amino-acid betaine (CHEBI:17750) / a methylated methyl acceptor (BETAINE)
- Affected organisms
- Humans and other mammals
Chemical Identifiers
- UNII
- 3SCV180C9W
- CAS number
- 107-43-7
- InChI Key
- KWIUHFFTVRNATP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
- InChI
- InChI=1S/C5H11NO2/c1-6(2,3)4-5(7)8/h4H2,1-3H3
- IUPAC Name
- 2-(trimethylazaniumyl)acetate
- SMILES
- C[N+](C)(C)CC([O-])=O
References
- Synthesis Reference
Shandong Aobo Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (2010). Preparation method of anhydrous betaine (Patent No. CN102557970B). China National Intellectual Property Administration. https://patents.google.com/patent/CN102557970B/en
- General References
- Yokoi K, Ito T, Ohkubo Y, Sumi S, Ueta A, Sugiyama N, Togari H: Long follow up of betaine therapy in two Japanese siblings with cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency. Pediatr Int. 2008 Oct;50(5):694-5. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02717.x. [Article]
- Schwahn BC, Hafner D, Hohlfeld T, Balkenhol N, Laryea MD, Wendel U: Pharmacokinetics of oral betaine in healthy subjects and patients with homocystinuria. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2003 Jan;55(1):6-13. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2125.2003.01717.x. [Article]
- Craig SA: Betaine in human nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Sep;80(3):539-49. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/80.3.539. [Article]
- Truitt C, Hoff WD, Deole R: Health Functionalities of Betaine in Patients With Homocystinuria. Front Nutr. 2021 Sep 9;8:690359. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.690359. eCollection 2021. [Article]
- FDA Approved Drug Products: CYSTADANE (betaine anhydrous) for oral solution [Link]
- EMA Summary of Product Characteristics: Amversio (betaine anhydrous) oral powder [Link]
- EMA Scientific Discussion: Cystadane (betaine anhydrous) for oral solution [Link]
- External Links
- Human Metabolome Database
- HMDB0000043
- KEGG Drug
- D07523
- KEGG Compound
- C00719
- PubChem Compound
- 247
- PubChem Substance
- 310264879
- ChemSpider
- 242
- BindingDB
- 50103520
- 1512
- ChEBI
- 17750
- ChEMBL
- CHEMBL1182
- Drugs.com
- Drugs.com Drug Page
- Wikipedia
- Trimethylglycine
Clinical Trials
- Clinical Trials Learn More" title="About Clinical Trials" id="clinical-trials-info" class="drug-info-popup" href="javascript:void(0);">
Phase Status Purpose Conditions Count 4 Completed Prevention Arsenic Metabolites Measured in Urine 1 4 Completed Treatment Unipolar Depression 1 4 Withdrawn Treatment Menstrual Related Mood Disorder / Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) / Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) / Premenstrual tension with edema 1 3 Completed Supportive Care Dry Mouth 1 3 Completed Treatment Peroxisome Biogenesis Disorder (PBD) 1
Pharmacoeconomics
- Manufacturers
- Not Available
- Packagers
- Not Available
- Dosage Forms
Form Route Strength Lotion Topical 0.2 g/100g Capsule Oral For solution Oral 1 g/1g Tablet Oral 500 mg / tab Powder Oral 1 G Powder, for solution Oral 1 g / 1.7 cc Powder, for solution Oral 1 g/1g Powder, for solution Oral 180 g/1g Powder, for solution Oral 6 g/1 Powder, for solution Oral 1 g Liquid Topical 0.5 g/100mL Liquid Topical 0.001 g/100mL Capsule, liquid filled Oral Capsule, delayed release pellets Oral Tablet Oral Cream Topical Shampoo Topical Tablet Oral Kit Oral Patch Topical - Prices
- Not Available
- Patents
- Not Available
Properties
- State
- Solid
- Experimental Properties
Property Value Source melting point (°C) 301-305°C EMA Scientific Discussion: Cystadane (betaine anhydrous) for oral solution water solubility Soluble EMA Scientific Discussion: Cystadane (betaine anhydrous) for oral solution pKa 1.83 Betaine: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects. UK, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2015. - Predicted Properties
Property Value Source Water Solubility 1.86 mg/mL ALOGPS logP -2.7 ALOGPS logP -4.5 Chemaxon logS -2 ALOGPS pKa (Strongest Acidic) 3.26 Chemaxon Physiological Charge 0 Chemaxon Hydrogen Acceptor Count 2 Chemaxon Hydrogen Donor Count 0 Chemaxon Polar Surface Area 40.13 Å2 Chemaxon Rotatable Bond Count 2 Chemaxon Refractivity 52.82 m3·mol-1 Chemaxon Polarizability 12.11 Å3 Chemaxon Number of Rings 0 Chemaxon Bioavailability 1 Chemaxon Rule of Five Yes Chemaxon Ghose Filter No Chemaxon Veber's Rule No Chemaxon MDDR-like Rule No Chemaxon - Predicted ADMET Features
- Not Available
Spectra
- Mass Spec (NIST)
- Not Available
- Spectra
- Chromatographic Properties
Collision Cross Sections (CCS)
Adduct CCS Value (Å2) Source type Source [M-H]- 121.1018183 predictedDarkChem Lite v0.1.0 [M-H]- 121.1197183 predictedDarkChem Lite v0.1.0 [M-H]- 120.1318618 predictedDarkChem Lite v0.1.0 [M-H]- 126.56775 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019) [M+H]+ 129.3875 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019) [M+Na]+ 137.90205 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019)
Targets
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Substrate
- General Function
- Zinc ion binding
- Specific Function
- Involved in the regulation of homocysteine metabolism. Converts betaine and homocysteine to dimethylglycine and methionine, respectively. This reaction is also required for the irreversible oxidati...
- Gene Name
- BHMT
- Uniprot ID
- Q93088
- Uniprot Name
- Betaine--homocysteine S-methyltransferase 1
- Molecular Weight
- 44998.205 Da
References
- Truitt C, Hoff WD, Deole R: Health Functionalities of Betaine in Patients With Homocystinuria. Front Nutr. 2021 Sep 9;8:690359. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.690359. eCollection 2021. [Article]
Enzymes
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Identical protein binding
- Specific Function
- Esterase with broad substrate specificity. Contributes to the inactivation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Can degrade neurotoxic organophosphate esters.
- Gene Name
- BCHE
- Uniprot ID
- P06276
- Uniprot Name
- Cholinesterase
- Molecular Weight
- 68417.575 Da
References
- Zhukovskii IuG, Kuznetsova LP, Sochilina EE, Dmitrieva EN, Gololobov IuG, Bykovskaia EIu: [Inhibition of cholinesterases of varying origin by ordinary and betaine vinylphosphates]. Ukr Biokhim Zh (1978). 1996 Sep-Oct;68(5):15-20. [Article]
- Lisa TA, Garrido MN, Domenech CE: Induction of acid phosphatase and cholinesterase activities in Ps. aeruginosa and their in-vitro control by choline, acetylcholine and betaine. Mol Cell Biochem. 1983;50(2):149-55. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Proline dehydrogenase activity
- Specific Function
- Converts proline to delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate.
- Gene Name
- PRODH
- Uniprot ID
- O43272
- Uniprot Name
- Proline dehydrogenase 1, mitochondrial
- Molecular Weight
- 68001.405 Da
References
- Jaleel CA, Manivannan P, Sankar B, Kishorekumar A, Panneerselvam R: Calcium chloride effects on salinity-induced oxidative stress, proline metabolism and indole alkaloid accumulation in Catharanthus roseus. C R Biol. 2007 Sep;330(9):674-83. Epub 2007 Aug 10. [Article]
- Jaleel CA, Manivannan P, Sankar B, Kishorekumar A, Gopi R, Somasundaram R, Panneerselvam R: Water deficit stress mitigation by calcium chloride in Catharanthus roseus: effects on oxidative stress, proline metabolism and indole alkaloid accumulation. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2007 Oct 15;60(1):110-6. Epub 2007 Jun 14. [Article]
- Jaleel CA, Manivannan P, Lakshmanan GM, Sridharan R, Panneerselvam R: NaCl as a physiological modulator of proline metabolism and antioxidant potential in Phyllanthus amarus. C R Biol. 2007 Nov;330(11):806-13. Epub 2007 Sep 25. [Article]
- Jaleel CA, Manivannan P, Kishorekumar A, Sankar B, Gopi R, Somasundaram R, Panneerselvam R: Alterations in osmoregulation, antioxidant enzymes and indole alkaloid levels in Catharanthus roseus exposed to water deficit. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2007 Oct 1;59(2):150-7. Epub 2007 May 6. [Article]
Transporters
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Substrate
- General Function
- Neurotransmitter:sodium symporter activity
- Specific Function
- Transports betaine and GABA. May have a role in regulation of GABAergic transmission in the brain through the reuptake of GABA into presynaptic terminals, as well as in osmotic regulation.
- Gene Name
- SLC6A12
- Uniprot ID
- P48065
- Uniprot Name
- Sodium- and chloride-dependent betaine transporter
- Molecular Weight
- 69367.655 Da
References
- Zhu XM, Ong WY: Changes in GABA transporters in the rat hippocampus after kainate-induced neuronal injury: decrease in GAT-1 and GAT-3 but upregulation of betaine/GABA transporter BGT-1. J Neurosci Res. 2004 Aug 1;77(3):402-9. doi: 10.1002/jnr.20171. [Article]
Drug created at September 14, 2010 16:21 / Updated at February 21, 2024 02:33